
•^ ^ *\ " ^ 











I 



^ 



Je 



% 



\ s 





















• .A 






**>' 



•\ v 



,°^, 



/ 



EXAMINATIONS 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY; 

~f-¥ 

BEING A COMPLETE 

SERIES OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS; 

DESIGNED AND INTENDED 

AS PREPARATORY TO EXAMINATIONS AT THE DIFFERENT MEDICAL 
SCHOOLS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES J 

AND FOR THOSE WHO ARE ABOUT TO PRESENT THEMSELVES 
BEFORE THE ARMY AND NAVAL BOARDS : 

TO WHICH ARE ANNEXED, 

babies of tf)e 3Soues, J&uscles, antr Arteries. 



By THOMAS SYDENHAM BRYANT, M. D., 

SURGEON U. S. ARMY. 




PHILADELPHIA: 

PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR: 

AND SOLD BY JOHN Y. BRYANT, 112 CHESTNUT ST. 

AND OTHER BOOKSELLERS. 

1835. 






"Nh^ 






32nttvtXi according to ^rt of (Hovlqubs, in the year 1835, by 

Thomas Sydenham Bryant, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern 

District of Pennsylvania. 



2Z/S 



HASWELL AND BARRINGTON, PRINTERS. 



DEDICATION. 



TO WILLIAM E. HORNER, M. D., 

PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY 1ST THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

Dear Sir : 

To whom can I better dedicate this Volume than 
to you, whose talents, industry, and untiring devotion 
to the science of Anatomy have raised you to the high 
and honourable situation you now fill ? Your kind 
and affectionate deportment towards myself requires 
this at my hands. 

That you may continue for many years to occupy 
and adorn the station to which you have been called ; 
and that prosperity and happiness may ever attend 
you, is the sincere prayer of 

Your devoted friend, 

and most obedient servant, 
Thomas Sydenham Bryant. 



TO MEDICAL STUDENTS. 



As a Preface is seldom read, and very often of no 
utility whatever, I shall not in the present work trou- 
ble you with one : I will only say, that it has been 
compiled from the best authors, and that I have be- 
stowed much time and labour on it. 

It is a work that has long been wanted by students, 
as the most intricate subjects are illustrated in the 
familiar style of question and answer. It is also an 
excellent book of reference for the practitioner. That 
it may meet your approbation, and be of essential ser- 
vice to you in the prosecution of your studies, is the 
sincere wish of 

Your most obedient servant, 

Thomas Sydenham Bryant. 



ANATOMICAL EXAMINATIONS. 



SECTION I. 

OF ANATOMY IN GENERAL. 



Ques. 1. What is Anatomy? 

Ans. Anatomy is that science which teaches the struc- 
ture of the human body. 

Ques. 2. What is morbid anatomy ? 

Ans. Morbid anatomy explains the alterations in the 
structure of the body which are induced by disease. 

Ques. 3. What is Physiology ? 

Ans. Physiology is that science which teaches us the 
functions of the body, or the uses of its parts. 

ues. 4. What is the general division of the compo- 
nent parts of the human body ? 

Ans. They are divided into solids and fluids. 

Ques. 5. Enumerate the solids of the body. 

Ans. The solids are the bones, cartilages, ligaments, 
muscles cellular substance, membranes, vessels, nerves, 
glands, viscera, adipose substance, &c. 

Ques. 6. What are bones ? 

Ans. Bones are the most hard and" inflexible parts of 
the body ; affording support and protection to all the rest. 

Ques. 7. What are cartilages ? 



8 

Ans. Cartilages are the polished, elastic substances 
covering the ends of bones ; and, excepting these, harder 
than any other parts. 

Ques. 8. What are ligaments ? 

Ans. Ligaments, though fine and inelastic, are flexible 
bodies connecting bones. 

Ques. 9. What are muscles ? 

Ans. Muscles are bundles of red, soft, and contractile 
fibres ; the white, hard, and inelastic terminations of 
which are called tendons ; when in the form of cords, 
aponeuroses, or fascia, or when expanded as membranes. 

Ques. 10, What is the cellular membrane ? 

Ans. Cellular membrane is a tissue of interwoven 
membranes. 

Ques. 11. What are membranes ? . 

Ans. Membranes are sheets of interwoven fibres. 

Ques. 12. What are vessels ? 

Ans. Vessels are long, cylindrical, and flexible tubes, 
dividing and subdividing into smaller branches. They 
are of three kinds ; 1st, arteries ; 2d, veins ; 3d, lym- 
phatics. 

Ques. 13. What are nerves ? 

Ans. Nerves are bundles of small white cords, pro- 
ceeding to or from the brain and spinal marrow. 

Ques. 14. What are glands ? 

Ans. Glands are distinct bodies formed by a peculiar 
arrangement of arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves, in 
a cellular parenchyma. There are two kinds of glands : 
— conglomerate and conglobate. The conglobate are for 
a peculiar secretion, as the salival glands. The conglo- 
merate are appendages of the absorbent system. 

Ques. 15. What are the viscera ? 

Ans. The viscera are complicated organs, somewhat 
loosely contained in the cavities of the body ; such as 
the stomach, liver, &c. 

Quest. 16. What is the adipose substance? 



9 

Ans. The adipose substance consists of a cellular sub- 
stance, within whose interstices an oleaginous fluid is 
deposited. 

Ques. 17. Enumerate the fluids of the human body. 

Ans. The fluids of the body are the blood, perspirable 
matter, urine, sebaceous matter, animal oil, ceruminous 
matter, saliva, tears, mucus, bile, gastric juice, semen, 
synovia, pancreatic juice, milk, chyle, &c. 

Ques. 18. What is blood ? 

Ans. The blood is a fluid which circulates through the 
veins and arteries, which supplies the body with nutri- 
ment, and from which all its other fluids are secreted. 

Ques. 19. What is the urine ? 

Ans. The urine is a fluid which is secreted by the 
kidneys. 

Ques. 20. What is perspirable matter ? 

Ans. The perspirable matter is a fluid exhaled from the 
minute vessels of the skin. 

Ques. 21. What is ceruminous matter? 

Ans. The cerumen is a fluid secreted by the cerumin- 
ous glands of the meatus auditorius externus. 

Ques. 22. What is sebaceous matter ? 

Ans. The sebaceous matter is a soapy fluid secreted by 
the sebaceous glands of the skin. 

Ques. 22. What is animal oil ? 

Ans. Animal oil is the oleaginous fluid which occupies 
the cells of the adipose substance and the internal cavities 
of the bones, where it is called the medullary substance 
or marrow. 

Ques. 23. What is saliva ? 

Ans. Saliva is a fluid secreted by the salival glands of 
the mouth. 

Ques. 24. What are the tears ? 

Ans. The tears are a fluid secreted by the lachrymal 
gland in each orbit. 

Ques. 25. What is the bile ? 



10 

Ans. Bile is a fluid secreted by the liver. 

Ques. 26. What is mucus ? 

Ans. Mucus is a fluid secreted by the mucous glands of 
the mouth and nose, &c. 

Ques. 27. What is the gastric juice ? 

Ans. The gastric juice is a fluid secreted by the sto- 
mach. 

Ques. 28. What is the semen? 

Ans. Semen is a fluid secreted by the testes, vesiculae, 
seminales, and prostate gland. 

Ques. 29. What is the synovia? 

Ans. Synovia is a fluid which lubricates the surfaces of 
joints 

Ques. 30. What is the pancreatic juice ? 

Ans. Pancreatic juice is a salival fluid secreted by the 
pancreas. 

Ques. 31. By what is milk secreted? 

Ans. Milk is a fluid secreted by the glands of the fe- 
male breasts. 

Ques. 32. What is chyle? 

Ans. Chyle is a milky fluid obtained by digestion from 
our food, and passing into the blood vessels is there con- 
verted into blood, 

Ques. 33. What divisions does the science of anatomy 
derive from the individual subjects which it considers. 

Ans. Each kind of solid substance is considered apart; 
this occasions the division of anatomy into osteology, 
osteogeny, syndesmology, chondrology, myology, ade- 
nology, bursalogy, angiology, neurology. 

Ques. 34. Give the explanation of these terms? 

Ans. Osteology treats of the form of perfect bones; 
osteogeny, of the ossific process or of the growth of bones ; 
syndesmology, of the ligaments ; chondrology, of the 
cartilages ; myology, of the muscles, and their appendages 
— the tendons and aponeuroses ; adenology, of the glands ; 
splanchnology, of the viscera and organs of sense ; bur- 



11 



salogy, of the bursae mucosae ; angiology, of the vessels ; 
and neurology, of the nerves. 



SECTION II. 



OF THE BONES IN GENERAL. 



Ques. I. What is the periosteum ? 

Ans. The periosteum is a membrane which covers the 
bones every where, and from which they derive their 
nourishment. 

Ques. 2. What is the perichondrium ? 

Ans. The perichondrium is the name given to the pe- 
riosteum where it passes over cartilages. 

Ques. 3. What are the uses of the periosteum ? 

Ans. The periosteum strengthens the union of bones 
with their epiphyses, affords attachments for ligaments 
and muscles, permits the muscles to glide smoothly over 
the bones, and conducts and supports vessels, in their pas- 
sage to the bones. 

Ques. 4. What is the periosteum interims ? 

Ans. A delicate membrane which lines the internal 
cavities of bones. 

Ques. 5. What is the use of the periosteum interims ? 

Ans. It forms little sacs to contain the marrow. 

Ques. 6. What are the general classes of bones ? 

Ans. Bones are divided into three classes ; viz., the 



12 

long or cylindrical; the broad or flat; and the mixed 
bones. 

Ques. 7. What are the epiphyses of bones? 

Ans. The name of epiphyses has been given to the 
extremities and great projections of the bones in the feetus r 
which at this time are united to the body of the bones by 
cartilages. 

Ques. 8. What is the general structure of epiphyses ? 

Ans. Their internal structure is spongy. 

Ques. 9. What are the diaphyses of bones ? 

Ans. The middle portions of the long bones placed 
between the epiphyses are called diaphyses. 

Ques. 10. What is the general structure of diaphyses 
internally ? 

Ans. Their interior is reticular. 

Ques. 11. What is the general structure of diaphyses 
externally ? 

Ans. Their exterior is compact. 

Ques. 12. What are the apophyses of bones? 

Ans. Apophyses are great projections, or distinct por- 
tions of bones. 

Ques. 13. How do apophyses differ from epiphyses ? 

Ans. They are distinguished from epiphyses in being 
less easily separable from the bone to which they belong 
— no layer of cartilages being interposed between them* 
The epiphyses of the foetus become apophyses in the 
adult. 

Ques. 14. What is the intimate structure of all bones ? 

Ans. Bones consist of a cellular, reticular, and vascular 
parenchyma ; and of osseous matter deposited in it : their 
base, therefore, being the same with that of the muscles, 
nerves, and soft parts of the body. 

Ques. 15. Are bones formed in fibres, plates, or la- 
mellae ? 

Ans. They,are not. 

Ques. 16. Are bones vascular? 



13 

Ans. They are at all times vascular ; but they are more 
especially so during the ossific process. 

Ques. 17. Where do their vessels enter 1 

Ans. By numerous small foramina all over their exter- 
nal surface. 

Ques. 18. What is the best demonstration of the vas- 
cularity of bones ? 

Ans. Their vascularity is proved by the tinge which 
they receive in animals with whose food the rubia tinc- 
torum or madder has been mixed. Some very fine spe- 
cimens of injection, prepared by Professor Horner, are to 
be found in the Wistar Museum attached to the University 
of Pennsylvania. 

Ques. 19. What is the medulla of bones ? 

Ans. The medulla is an oleaginous fluid deposited in 
their internal cells. 

Ques. 20. How is it secreted ? 

Ans. It is secreted by minute arteries which ramify 
upon the sacs of the internal periosteum. 

Ques. 21. Where do the medullary arteries of bones 
penetrate them ? 

Ans. They generally penetrate the bones about their 
middle by oblique canals. 

Ques. 22. What is the use of the medulla? 

Ans. The use of the medulla is not accurately ascer- 
tained. In Soemmering's opinion it tends to render the 
bones comparatively lighter. 

Ques. 23. What names are given to the different parts 
of bones ? 

Ans. The external parts of bones are the following : 
foramina, canals, sinuses, sinuosities, furrows, notches, 
fossae, pits, glenoid cavities, cotyloid cavities, tubercles, 
tuberosities, spines, heads, necks, processes, &c. 

Ques. 24. What are foramina ? 

Ans. Foramina are holes perforating the substance of 
2 



14 

bones, without leaving any long track within their sub- 
stance. 

Ques. 25. What are canals ? 

Ans. Canals are foramina contained within the sub- 
stance of bones ? 

Ques. 26. What are sinuses? 

Ans. Sinuses are great cavities in bones with small 
openings. 

Ques. 27. What are sinuosities ? 

Ans. Sinuosities are superficial, but broad irregular 
depressions. 

Ques. 28. What are furrows ? 

Ans. Furrows are long, narrow, and superficial canals. 

Ques. 29. What are notches ? 

Ans. Notches are cavities in the margin of bones. 

Ques. 30. What are fossae ? 

Ans. Fossae are deep and large cavities upon their 
surface. 

Ques. 31. What are pits ? 

Ans. Pits are small though deep depressions. 

Ques. 32. What are glenoid cavities ? 

Ans. Glenoid cavities are smooth shallow cavities for 
articulation. 

Ques. 33. What are cotyloid cavities ? 

Ans. Cotyloid cavities are deep and smooth for articu- 
lation. 

Ques. 34. What are tubercles ? 

Ans. Tubercles are .small eminences. 

Ques. 35. What are tuberosities ? 

Ans. Tuberosities are greater, rough elevations. 

Ques. 36. What are spines ? 

Ans. Spines are long projections. 

Ques. 37. What are heads ? 

Ans. Heads are the round tops of bones. 

Ques. 38. What are necks ? 



15 

Ans. Necks are the narrow portions of bones beneath 
their heads. 

Ques. 39. What are processes ? 

Ans. Processes are projecting portions of bones. 



SECTION III. 

OF ARTICULATION IN GENERAL. 

Ques. 1. What is the articulation of bones ? 

Ans. The connexion of bones with each other is called 
articulation : which is divided into three classes. 

Ques. 2. What are the general classes of articulation ? 

Ans. The general classes of articulations are symphy- 
sis, synarthrosis, and diarthrosis. 

Ques. 3. What is symphysis ? 

Ans. Symphysis expresses the substance connecting 
bones. 

Ques. 4. What is synarthrosis ? 

Ans. Synarthrosis expresses the immoveable connexion 
of bones. 

Ques. 5. What is diarthrosis 1 

Ans. Diarthrosis means the moveable connexion of 
bones. 

Ques. 6. What are the subdivisions of symphysis ? 

Ans. Symphysis is subdivided into synostosis, syndes- 
mosis, synchondrosis, and syssarcosis. 



16 

Ques. 7. What are the genera of synarthrosis ? 
Ans. Synarthrosis is subdivided into suture, harmonia, 
schindylesis and gomphosis. 

Ques. 8. What are the genera of diarthrosis ? 
Ans. Diarthrosis is subdivided into enarthrosis, arthro- 
dia, amphiarthrosis, and ginglymus. 

Ques. 9. What is synostosis 1 

Ans. Synostosis means the conjunction of bones by 
osseous matter ; as that of the sphenoid and occipital. 

Ques. 10. What is syndesmosis ? 

Ans. It expresses conjunction by ligaments as in all 
moveable joints. 

Ques. 11. What is synchondrosis ? 

Ans. Synchrondrosis expresses conjunction by carti- 
lage ; as that of the ribs and sternum. 

Ques. 12. What is syssarcosis ? 

Ans. Syssarcosis expresses conjunction by muscles ; 
as in all moveable joints. 

Ques. 13. What is sy neurosis ? 

Ans. Syneurosis expresses conjunction by membranes ; 
as that of the radius and ulna. 

Ques. 14. What is meant by suture ? 

Ans. Suture expresses conjunction by indented mar- 
gins ; as that of the two parietal bones. 

Ques. 15. What is meant by harmonia? 

Ans. It expresses conjunction by straighter margins ; 
as that of the ossa nasi. 

Ques. 16. What is meant by schindylesis ? 

Ans. It is that articulation where the spine of one bone 
is received into the furrow of another ; as the vomer re- 
ceives the azygos process of the sphenoid bone. 

Ques. 17. What is gomphosis ? 

Ans. It is that conjunction by which the teeth are 
placed in the sockets. 

Ques. 18. What is enarthrosis? 

Ans. It expresses the reception of the head of one bone 



17 

by a deep cavity in another ; as the acetabulum receives 
the head of the femur. 

Ques. 19. What is arthrodia? 

Ans. Arthrodia expresses the reception of the head of 
one bone by a superficial cavity of another ; as the gle- 
noid cavity of the scapula receives the head of the hu- 
merus. 

Ques. 20. What is amphiarthrosis ? 

Ans. It expresses conjunction of bones by plain sur- 
faces ; as those of the cuneiform and metatarsal bones. 

Ques. 21. What is meant by ginglymus articulation? 

Ans. Ginglymus expresses the hinge-like articulation ; 
as that of the elbow joint, of which there are three kinds ; 
namely, ginglymus simplex, ginglymus compositus, and 
ginglymus trochoides. 

Ques. 22. What is ginglymus simplex ? 

Ans. Ginglymus simplex is that species where corre- 
sponding, elevated, and depressed surfaces constitute one 
joint ; as that of the elbow. 

Ques. 23. What is ginglymus compositus 1 

Ans. It is that species where two different hinge-like 
joints serve one purpose ; as in the articulation of the 
radius and ulna. 

Ques. 24. What is ginglymus trochoides ? 

Ans. It is that species where one bone turns round the 
point of another ; as the atlas moves upon the process of 
the dentata. 



2* 



r~ 



18 



SECTION IV. 



OF OSTEOGENY. 



Ques. 1 . What is the name of that division of anatomy 
which treats of the growth of bones ? 

Ans. Osteogeny. 

Ques. 2. How are bones formed ? 

Ans. They are formed by the deposition of ossific 
matter, either in membranes or cartilage. 

Ques. 3. What are the constituent parts of bones ? 

Ans. Their constituent parts are a cellular and vascular 
parenchyma, and a phosphate of lime with other saline 
combinations. 

Ques. 4. What are the phenomena of ossification ? 

Ans. Ossification is thus effected : the arteries of the 
part about to undergo this process become dilated ; though 
formerly transparent they now assume a red colour ; the 
cartilage itself is not transmuted into bone, but becomes 
gradually absorbed whilst the ossific matter is deposited 
in its place. 

Ques. 5. How does ossification take place in the dia- 
physis of long bones ? 

Ans. In the diaphysis of long bones this process begins 
in the middle, forming flat rings between the external and 
internal periosteum. 

Ques. 6. How does ossification take place in the epi- 
physis of long bones ? 

Ans. At their epiphyses in distinct points, which gra- 
dually unite. 

Ques. 7. How does ossification take place in the bones 
of the cranium ? 



19 



Ans. It assumes the appearance of radii diverging from 
a centre. 

Ques. 8. What bones are perfectly formed at birth ? 

Ans. The small bones of the ear. 

Ques. 9. What bones are the latest ossified ? 

Ans. The epiphyses. 

Ques. 10. When does ossification in the epiphyses 
terminate ? 

Ans. About seven or eight years of age. 

Ques. 11. At what period are the epiphyses united to 
the diaphyses ? 

Ans. About twenty, years of age they are converted 
into apophyses by bony union with the diaphyses. 



SECTION V. 

OF THE HEAD AND ITS SUTURES. 

Ques. 1. How are the bones of the head divided 1 

Ans. The bones of the head are divided into those be- 
longing to the cranium and those belonging to the face. 

Ques. 2. What is the general structure of the bones 
of the cranium ? 

Ans. The bones of the cranium consist of two tables 
or bony plates, and an intermediate diploe. 

Ques. 3. Which of its tables is thickest ? 



20 



Ans. The external table is thickest. 

Ques. 4. What is the diploe of the bones of the cra- 
nium ? 

Ans. It is of a cellular structure, like the epiphyses of 
the long bones. 

Ques. 5. What is the name of the membrane covering 
the cranium ? 

Ans. Pericranium is the name given to the periosteum 
of these bones. 

Ques. 6. What is the structure of the bones of the 
face 1 

Ans. The bones of the face are of an irregular struc- 
ture. 

Ques. 7. Enumerate the bones of the cranium. 

Ans. They are eight in number : the os frontis, two 
ossa parietalia, two ossa temporum, os occipitis, os sphe- 
noides, and os aethmoides. 

Ques. 8. What bones are proper to the cranium ? 

Ans. Five : two parietal, two temporal, and the occi- 
pital. 

Ques. 9. What bones are common to the cranium and 
face ? 

Ans. Three ; os frontis, sphenoid, and aethmoid. 

Ques. 10. What bones are proper to the face? 

Ans. There are fourteen : two ossa nasi, two ossa la- 
chrymalia, two ossa malarum, two ossa maxillaria supe- 
riora, two ossa palati, two ossa turbinata inferiora, vomer, 
and os maxillare inferius. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the os frontis ? 

Ans. The os frontis is situated in the anterior part of 
the cranium. 

Ques. 12. Where are the parietal bones ? 

Ans. In the upper and lateral parts of the cranium. 

Ques. 13. Where are the temporal bones ? 

Ans. In the lower and lateral parts, and partly in the 
base of the cranium. 



21 

Ques. 14. Where is the os occipitis ? 

Ans. In the base and back of the cranium. 

Ques. 15. In what part of the cranium is the os sphe- 
noides ? 

Ans. In the middle of the base, and partly on the sides. 

Ques. 16. Where is the os aethmoides? 

Ans. In the middle of the forepart of the base of the 
cranium. 

Ques. 17. Where are the ossa nasi ? 

Ans. In the arch of the nose. 

Ques. 18. Where are the ossa lachrymalia, or ossa 
unguis ? 

Ans. In the anterior part of the nasal sides of the 
orbits ? 

Ques. 19. Where are the ossa malarum? 

Ans. In the upper part of the face. 

Ques. 20. Where are the ossa maxillaria superiora ? 

Ans. In the middle of the face, constituting the upper 
jaw. 

Ques, 21. Where are the ossa palati situated? 

Ans. In the back of the orbits, nares, and palate. 

Ques. 22. Where are the ossa turbinata inferiora ? 

Ans. In the lower part of the sides of the nares. 

Ques. 23. Where is the vomer situated 1 

Ans. In the middle of the nares. 

Ques. 24. What are the sutures of the cranium ? 

Ans. The sutures formed by the union of the bones of 
the cranium, are five in number : the coronal, the sagittal, 
the lambdoidal, and the two squamous. 

Ques. 25. What sutures connect the bones of the 
cranium and face ? 

Ans. The sphenoidal, aethmoidal, transverse, and the 
two zygomatic sutures. 

Ques. 26. What are the harmonia of the face ? 

Ans. They are sixteen in number : one perpendicular 
nasal, two lateral nasal, two lachrymal, two transverse 



22 

nasal, two external orbital, one mystachial, one trans- 
verse palatine, one longitudinal palatine, two maxillo 
palatine. 

Ques. 27. Describe the coronal suture. 

Ans. The coronal suture stretches from above an inch 
behind the temporal side of one orbit, above the superior 
part of the cranium, to the same place on the other, con- 
necting the two parietal bones to the frontal bone. 

Ques. 28. Describe the sagittal suture. 

Ans. The sagittal suture extends alongjthe top of the 
head, from the middle of the coronal to considerably be- 
hind the vertex, connecting the parietal bones. 

Ques. 29. Describe the lambdoidal suture. 

Ans. It begins at the termination of the sagittal, and 
passes, in the form of the Greek letter a> forward and 
downward on each side, connecting the occipital bone to 
the parietal bones. 

Ques. 30. Describe the squamous sutures. 

Ans. The squamous sutures are of a semicircular form, 
situated higher upon the cranium than the top of the ex- 
ternal ear, connecting on each side the upper edge of the os 
squamosum, to the lower edge of the os parietale, which 
it overlaps. 

Ques. 31. What are the additamenta suturae lambdoi- 
dalis ? 

Ans. The continuations on each side of the lambdoidal 
suture into the base of the cranium, are called the addita- 
menta suturae lambdoidalis. 

Ques. 32. What are the additamenta suturae squa- 
mosae ? 

Ans. The posterior seriated portions of the squamous 
sutures are called its additamenta. 

Ques. 33. Describe the sphenoidal suture. 

Ans. The sphenoidal suture surrounds all the edges of 
the sphenoid bone. 
. Ques. 34. Describe the aethmoidal suture. 



23 

Ans. The sethmoidal suture surrounds all the edges of 
the bone of the same name. 

Ques. 35. Describe the transverse suture. 

Ans. The transverse suture extends through the orbits, 
between the cranium and face, and joins the cranial and 
facial bones. 

Ques. 36. Describe the zygomatic suture. 

Ans. The zygomatic suture is situated rather towards 
the anterior part of the zygoma ; it runs from above 
downward and backward, connecting the zygomatic pro- 
cesses of the temporal and cheek bones. 

Ques. 37. Describe the perpendicular nasal harmonia. 

Ans. The perpendicular nasal harmonia is situated in 
the middle of the nasal arch, connecting the two ossa 
nasi. 

Ques. 38. Describe the lateral nasal harmonia. 

Ans. The lateral nasal harmonia are situated on each 
side of the nasal arch, connecting the ossa nasi to the 
ossa maxillaria. 

Ques. 39. Describe the lachrymal harmonia. 

Ans. The lachrymal harmonia surrounds the forepart 
of the ossa lachrymalia, connecting them to the ossa max- 
illaria. 

Ques. 40. Describe the transverse nasal harmonia. 

Ans. The transverse nasal harmonia are situated at the 
lower part of the nares, internally connecting the ossa 
turbinata inferiora to the ossa maxillaria. 

Ques. 41. Describe the external orbital harmoniae. 

Ans. The external orbital harmonias extend from the 
middle of the lower side of each orbit downward and out- 
ward, to the lower part of each os malae, connecting these 
bones to the ossa maxillaria. 

Ques. 42. Describe the internal orbital harmoniae. 

Ans. The internal orbital harmoniae extend from the 
middle of the inferior edge of each orbit to the lower an- 



24 

terior part of the sphenomaxillary fissure, connecting 
the ossa malarum to the ossa maxillaria. 

Ques. 43. Describe the mystachial harmonia. 

Ans. They connect the maxillary bones immediately 
beneath the anterior aperture of the nostrils. 

Ques. 44. Describe the transverse palatine harmonia. 

Ans. It stretches across the back of the palate, connect- 
ing the palatine processes of the palate bones to those of 
the superior maxillary bones. 

Ques. 45. Describe the longitudinal palatine harmonia. 

Ans. They extend from the middle of the anterior to 
the middle of the posterior part of the palate, connecting 
the palatine processes of the maxillary and palate bones 
of the one side to those of the other. 

Ques. 46. Describe the maxillo palatine harmoniaB. 

Ans. They are situated at the back of the sides of the 
nares, connecting the palate bones to the bulbous pro- 
cesses of the superior maxillary bones. 

Ques. 47. What bones of the face does schyndylesis 
connect ? 

Ans. The vomer is connected with the os sphenoides 
above, and with the palatine and superior maxillary bones 
below, by schyndylesis. 

Ques. 48. What bones of the face does gomphosis 
connect ? 

Ans. The connexion betwixt the teeth and their sockets 
is an instance of gomphosis. 



25 



SECTION VI. 



OF THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 

Os Frontis. 

Ques. 1. What is the situation of the os frontis ? 

Ans. The os frontis is situated in the anterior part of 
the cranium, and superior part of the face. 

Ques. 2. How is the os frontis divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into a frontal and facial portion. 

Ques. 3. What is the situation and general form of 
its frontal portion ? 

Ans. It is situated superiorly, being concave internally 
and convex externally, its upper edge being semicircular, 
and possessing a double row of small serrae. 

Ques. 4. What is the situation and general form of 
its facial portion ? 

Ans. It is situated inferiorly, and is of a very irregular 
form. 

Ques. 5. What are the elevations of the os frontis ? 

Ans. The following, two internal angular processes at 
the insides of the orbits ; a nasal process between these ; 
two superciliary ridges forming arches, the inner ends of 
which rest on the internal angular processes, and the 
outer ends upon the two external angular processes at the 
outer edge of each orbit; a temporal process and ridge 
immediately behind the external angular process ; two 
orbitar plates, or processes, which run back from the su- 
perciliary ridges ; two bumps of the frontal sinuses, which 
are placed immediately above the internal angular pro- 
cesses and eminences, some way above the middle of 
3 



26 

the superciliary ridges, which were the points of its ossi- 
fication : — all these elevations are situated externally, 
except the orbital plates, which project internally, where 
also the spine, ascending from the root of the nose to the 
middle of the semicircular edge of the bone, maybe seen. 

Ques. 6. What muscles are attached to its internal 
angular processes ? 

Ans. The trochlearis, internally by means of its pulley, 
and externally the corrugator supercilii are attached to 
the internal angular process. 

Ques. 7. What are attached to its temporal ridges 1 

Ans. The origin of the temporalis, and its tendinous 
aponeurosis. 

Ques. 8. What is attached to its spine ? 

Ans. The falx cerebri ; a duplicative of the dura mater. 

Ques. 9. What are situated above its orbital plates ? 

Ans. The anterior lobes of the brain rest on the orbital 
plates. 

Ques. 10. What are the depressions of the os frontis ? 

Ans. They are its orbital depressions in the orbital 
plates ; its Lachrymal depressions situated on the same 
plates, and behind its external angular processes ; its de- 
pressions for the pulleys of the trochleares on the inside 
of its internal angular processes ; its aethmoidal fissure 
between its orbital plates ; its temporal depressions behind 
its processes of the same name ; the great concavity of 
the internal side of the bone; and a furrow along its 
spine. 

Ques. 11. What are situated in its lachrymal depres- 
sions ? 

Ans. The lachrymal glands. 

Ques. 12. What is situated in its aethmoidal fissure ? 

Ans. The cribriform plate of the sethmoid bone. 

Ques. 13. What are situated in its temporal depres- 
sions ? 

Ans. The temporal muscles. 



27 

Ques. 14. What is situated in the furrow of its spine ? 

Ans. The anterior part of the longitudinal sinus: a 
great vein of the dura mater. 

Ques. 15. What are the foramina of the os frontis ? 

Ans. Externally two, called superciliary from their 
being situated about one-third from the inner end of the 
superciliary ridges ; and internally one, called ccecum, 
situated at the root of the spine. 

Ques. 16. What is transmitted through its superciliary 
foramen ? 

Ans. They transmit to the forehead twigs of the oph- 
thalmic nerve, artery, and vein. 

Ques. 17. What is transmitted occasionally through 
the foramen called ccecum ? 

Ans. An artery and vein occasionally pass to the nose. 

Ques. 18. What is fixed in the foramen ccecum ? 

Ans. A small process of the dura mater. 

Ques. 19. What is the foetal state of this bone 1 

Ans. In the foetus it is divided down its middle ; it 
contains no sinuses; and neither the orbital plates, nor 
the superciliary ridges, are complete in it. 

Ques. 20. What are the connexions of this bone ? 

Ans. It is connected superiorly to the parietal bones 
by the coronal suture ; posteriorly and inferiorly to the 
sphenoid bone by the sphenoidal suture ; and inferiorly 
to the bones of the face by the transverse suture. 

Ques. 21. What are the uses of this bone ? 

Ans. It constitutes the forehead and upper part of the 
face ; it supports and defends the anterior lobes of the 
brain ; and forms a great part of the orbits. 

Os Parietale. 

Ques. 22. What is the situation of the os parietale ? 
Ans. It is situated at the superior and lateral part of 
the skull ? 



28 

Ques. 23. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is of a quadrangular form ; convex externaily- 
and concave internally. 

Ques. 24. What are the names of its sides ? 

Ans. Its edges are one superior, one inferior, one ante- 
rior, and one posterior. 

Ques. 25. What are the names of its angles? 

Ans. One anterior superior, one anterior inferior, one 
posterior superior, and one posterior inferior. 

Ques. 26. What are the elevations of the os parietale? 

Ans. Two externally, viz. : a semicircular ridge, some- 
what less than half way up the bone, and in the middle of 
the bone just above that ridge, an eminence which was 
its foetal point of ossification. 

Ques. 27. What is attached to its temporal ridge? 

Ans. The temporal muscle. 

Ques. 28. How do you distinguish the bone of one 
side from that of the other ? 

Ans. When the convexity of the right parietal bone is 
turned outward, and its longest and most pointed angle is 
turned forward and downwards, the bone will be placed 
in the situation it holds in the body, and thus the side to 
which it belongs may be ascertained. 

Ques. 29. What are the depressions of the os parie- 
tale? 

Ans. They are the great concavity of its inner side, a 
furrow on the inside of its upper edge, a furrow on the 
inside of its inferior posterior angle, a furrow on the inside 
of its anterior inferior angle, and frequently pits on its ex- 
ternal surface. 

Ques. 30. What is situated in the furrow on the inside 
of its upper edge ? 

Ans. The middle portion of the longitudinal sinus. 

Ques. 31. What is situated in the furrow on the inside 
of its inferior posterior angle ? 

Ans. The middle portion of the lateral sinus. 



29 

Ques. 32. What is situated in the furrow on the inside 
of its anterior inferior angle ? 

Ans. The anterior branch of the arteria meningea me- 
dia, or spinous artery. 

Ques. 33. What is contained in the pits frequently 
seen on its internal surface ? 

Ans. Vessels passing to or from the bone, and the con- 
volutions of the brain. 

Ques. 34. What are the foramina of the os paiietale ? 

Ans. There is only one foramen in this bone, which is 
placed towards the posterior part of its upper edge, and 
transmits an artery to the dura mater, and a vein to the 
longitudinal sinus. 

Ques. 35. What is the foetal state of this bone ? 

Ans. Its angles are unformed, its sides are incomplete, 
nor does its foramen exist in the foetal state. 

Ques. 36. What are the connexions of this bone? 

Ans. It is connected to its fellow by the sagittal suture, 
to the os frontis by the coronal suture, to the os temporis 
by the squamous suture, to the os occipitis by the lamb- 
doidal suture, and by its anterior inferior angle, with the 
os sphenoides. 

Ques. 37. What are the uses of this bone ? 

Ans. It constitutes the upper and lateral part of the 
skull, and protects the middle lobes of the brain. 

Os Temporis. 

Ques. 38. What is the situation of the os temporis? 

Ans. It is situated at the lower part of the side and base 
of the cranium. 

Ques. 39. How is it divided? 

Ans. Into three portions, the squamous, the petrous, 
and the mamillary. 

Ques. 40. What is the situation and general form of 
its squamous portion? 

3 * 



30 

Ans. It is placed uppermost, is smooth externally, and 
has a semicircular edge. 

Ques. 41. What is the situation and general form of 
its mamillary portion ? 

Ans. It is situated posteriorly, and is less regular and 
thin than the squamous. 

Ques. 42. What is the situation and general form of 
its petrous portion ? 

Ans. It is placed inferiorly and internally, and is the 
least regular of all. 

Ques. 43. What are the elevations of the os tem- 
porum ? 

Ans. They are its mamillary process, projecting down- 
ward from the portion of that name ; its zygomatic pro- 
cess standing outwards and forwards from the squamous 
portion, and having a smooth tubercle placed at the anterior 
inferior part of its base ; its styloid process projecting 
downwards and forwards from the petrous portion ; its 
vaginal process placed between the mastoid, styloid, and 
zygomatic ; and the ridge internally on the upper part of 
its petrous portion. 

Ques. 44. What is the internal structure of its ma- 
millary process ? 

Ans. It is cellular. 

Ques. 45. What muscles are attached to it? 

Ans. The sterno-cleido-mastoideus, and the trachelo- 
mastoideus. 

Ques. 46. What is attached to the upper edge of the 
zygomatic process ? 

Ans. The aponeurosis of the temporal muscle, 

Ques. 47. What is attached to the lower edge of that 
process ? 

Ans. A part of the masseter muscle. 

Ques. 48. What passes under that process? 

Ans. The temporal muscle. 



31 

Ques. 49. What is the use of the tubercle situated at 
its base ? 

Ans. It constitutes a part of the joint of the lower jaw. 

Ques. 50. What is attached to the styloid process ? 

Ans. The styio-hyoideus, the stylo-glossus, and the 
stylo-pharyngeus muscles : a ligament to the os hyoides ; 
and the lateral ligament of the lower jaw ; are also attached 
to the styloid process. 

Ques. 51. What is attached to the auditory process? 

Ans. The cartilage of the meatus auditorius externus. 

Ques. 52. What is attached to the edge of its petrous 
portion ? 

Ans. Part of the tentorium ; a duplicature of the dura 
mater. 

Ques. 53. What are the depressions of the os tern- 
poris ? 

Ans. They are the glenoid cavity, for the articulation 
of the lower jaw ; the fissura glasseri, traversing the mid- 
dle of that depression ; a fossa, behind the mastoid pro- 
cess ; a thimble-like cavity, internal to its styloid process, 
constituting part of the jugular foramen ; a depression 
before its zygomatic process, called the temporal ; a fur- 
row on the inside of its mamillary portion ; a furrow 
above, and another below the posterior surface of its 
petrous portion. 

Ques. 54. What is situated in the articular cavity of 
the bone ? 

Ans. Anteriorly the condyle of the jaw, and posteriorly 
a part of the parotid gland. 

Ques. 55. What passes through the fissura glasseri ? 

Ans. The laxator tympani major, and chorda tympani. 

Ques. 56. To what does the groove behind the mas- 
toid process give attachment ? 

Ans. The origin of the digastricus muscle. 

Ques. 57. What does the jugular foramen transmit? 

Ans. Posteriorly the jugular vein, and anteriorly the 



32 



par vagum or pneumo-gastric nerve, the glossopharyngeal 
nerve, and the accessary nerve of Willis. 

Ques. 58. What is lodged in the temporal depression ? 

Ans. The temporal muscle. 

Ques. 59. What is situated in the furrow on the inside 
of its mamillary portion 1 

Ans. Part of the lateral sinus. 

Ques. 60. What is situated in the furrows at the upper 
and lower edges of the posterior surface of its petrous 
portion ? 

Ans. The superior and inferior petrosal sinuses. 

Ques. 61. What are the foramina of the os temporis? 

Ans. They are externally, the meatus auditorius ex- 
ternus, the foramen stylo-mastoideum, or opening of the 
Fallopian aqueduct, the foramen carotideum, the bony ca- 
nal of the eustachian tube, the canal which contains the 
tensor tympani, the foramen mastoideum ; internally, the 
meatus auditorius internus, which divides into the Fallo- 
pian aqueduct superiorly and the tractus cochlea infe- 
riorly ; a small foramen is situated on the superior surface 
of the posterior surface of the petrous portion. The fora- 
men common to this bone and the sphenoid is placed at 
the anterior part of its petrous portion. 

Ques. 62. How are these foramina situated? 

Ans. The meatus auditorius externus is placed between 
its mastoid and zygomatic processes ; the foramen stylo- 
mastoideum between the styloid and mastoid processes ; 
the foramen carotideum at the base of the petrous portion ; 
the bony canal of the. eustachian tube, at the external side 
of the petrous portion ; the canal which contains the tensor 
tympani, immediately before the last mentioned ; the fora- 
men mastoideum, behind the mastoid process ; the meatus 
auditorius internus, on the posterior surface of the petrous 
portion ; the opening of the aqueductus cochlea behind 
the edge of the posterior surface of the petrous portion, 
immediately below the meatus ; the opening of the aque- 



33 

ductus vestibuli, on the posterior surface of the petrous 
portion, about five lines behind. 

Ques. 63. What passes through the stylo-mastoid fo- 



ramen 



Ans. The portio dura or facial nerve passes outward, 
and an artery enters to the ear. 

Ques. 64. What does the canalis carotideus transmit? 

Ans. It transmits the carotid artery, and the beginning 
of the intercostal nerve. 

Ques. 65. What does the foramen mastoideum trans- 
mit? 

Ans. It transmits an artery to the dura mater, and a 
vein to the lateral sinus. 

Ques. 6Q. What does the meatus auditorius internus 
transmit ? 

Ans. It transmits the portio dura and mollis, or the fa- 
cial and auditory nerve. 

Ques. 67. What is transmitted by the Fallopian aque- 
duct? 

Ans. It transmits the continuation of the facial nerve. 

Ques. 68. What does the small foramen on the su- 
perrior surface of the petrous portion transmit ? 

Ans. Its tiansmits the Vidian nerve to join the portio 
dura. 

Ques. 69. What is the foetal state of this bone ? 

Ans. In the foetal state there exists in this bone no 
meatus auditorius externus, but merely a bony ring, nor 
are the styloid processes formed. 

Ques. 70. What are the connexions of this bone ? 

Ans. It is connected anteriorly to the sphenoid bone 
by the sphenoidal suture, superiorly to the parietal by 
the squamous suture and its additamentum, posteriorly to 
the occipital by the lambdoidal suture and its additamen- 
tum, and to the lower jaw by ginglymus. 

Ques. 71. What are the uses of this bone? 

Ans. It constitutes the inferior lateral parts of the era- 



34 



nium, supports on each side the middle lobes of the brain, 
transmits several vessels and nerves, and contains the 
organ of hearing. 

Os Occipitis. 

Ques. 72. What is the situation of the os occipitis ? 

Ans. It is situated in the inferior and posterior part of 
the cranium. 

Ques. 73. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is irregularly rhomboidal, its inferior angle 
projecting forwards, which part is called the cuneiform 
process — its superior angle is rounded, and its lateral 
angles obtuse ; it is concave internally, and convex ex- 
ternally. 

Ques. 74. What are the elevations of the os occipitis ? 

Ans. They are its condyles — projections situated on 
each side, and somewhat anteriorly to the great foramen 
in the middle of the bone — a rough protuberance external 
to each of them ; the elevated edges of the great foramen ; 
a longitudinal ridge on the posterior part of the bone ; a 
superior and an inferior transverse ridge crossing the lon- 
gitudinal one ; a spine in the middle of the superior 
transverse ridge : internally it has a longitudinal and a 
transverse ridge, which cross each other, and are deno- 
minated its internal crucial spine. 

Ques. 75. With what are its condyles connected ? 

Ans. With the oblique processes of the atlas. 

Ques. 76. What muscles are fixed to the protuberances 
external to the condyles ? 

Ans. The recti laterales. 

Ques. 77. What is fixed to the anterior edge of the 
great foramen ? 

Ans. The perpendicular ligament of the second ver- 
tebra, and that of the anterior arch of the atlas. 

Ques. 78. What is fixed to its posterior ridge? 



35 

Ans. The ligament of the posterior arch of the atlas. 

Ques. 79. What is fixed to its superior transverse ridge 
and spine ? 

Ans. The occipito frontales and the trapezii muscles. 

Ques. 80. What is fixed to its inferior transverse 
ridge ? 

Ans. The recti majores postici, and externally to them 
the obliqui superiores. 

Ques. 81. What is fixed to the upper portion of its 
internal crucial ridge ? 

Ans. The posterior part of the falx cerebri. 

Ques. 82. What is fixed to the lateral portions of its 
internal crucial ridge ? 

Ans. The tentorium ; a duplicature of the dura mater. 

Ques. 83. What is fixed to its inferior portion ? 

Ans. The falx cerebelli ; a duplicature also of the dura 
mater. 

Ques. 84. What are the depressions of the os occi- 
pitis ? 

Ans. They are one below each superior transverse 
ridge ; one below each side of its superior transverse 
ridge ; one on the outside of each condyle which contri- 
bute to form the jugular foramina ; a small depression 
anterior to each of these ; a furrow in the upper portion 
of the internal crucial spine ; a furrow in the inferior 
portion ; a furrow in each lateral portion of the same 
spine ; a depression on each side of the superior portion ; 
one On each side of the inferior portion of the same 
spine ; a furrow immediately anterior to each of these ; 
a great depression on the superior surface of the cuneiform 
process ; and a small furrow on each side of that de- 
pression. 

Ques. 85. What is fixed to the hollow between the 
two external transverse ridges ? 

Ans. Internally the complexi, and externally the sple- 
nii muscles. 



36 

Ques. 86. What is fixed to the depression below its 
inferior external transverse ridge. 

Ans. The recti rainores postici muscles. 

Ques. 87. What do the semilunar depressions external 
to the condyles contribute to form ? 

Ans. The jugular foramina are in part formed by them. 

Ques. 88. What is fixed to the small depressions be- 
fore the condyles ? 

Ans. The recti minores antici muscles. 

Ques. 89. What are fixed to the small depressions an- 
terior to the last ? 

Ans. The recti majores antici muscles. 

Ques. 90. What is situated in the furrow of the upper 
portion of its internal crucial ridge 1 

Ans. The posterior part of the longitudinal sinus. 

Ques. 91. What are situated in the furrows of the 
lateral portions of its crucial internal ridge ? 

Ans. The first parts of the lateral sinuses. 

Ques. 92. What is situated in the furrow of the infe- 
rior portion of its internal crucial ridge ? 

Ans. The occipital sinus. 

Ques. 93. What are situated in the great depressions 
above the lateral portions of its internal crucial ridge 1 

Ans. The posterior lobes of the cerebrum. 

Ques. 94. What are situated in the great depressions 
below the lateral portions of its internal crucial ridge ? 

Ans. The lobes of th cerebellum. 

Ques. 95. What are situated in the furrows immedi- 
ately before these inferior depressions ? 

Ans. The terminations of the lateral sinuses. 

Ques. 96. What is situated in the great depression of 
the superior surface of the cuneiform process. 

Ans. The medulla oblongata. 

Ques. 97. What are situated in the small furrows on 
each side of that great depression ? 

Ans. The inferior petrosal sinuses. 



37 

Ques. 98. What are the foramina of the os occipitis ? 

Ans. They are the foramen magnum, immediately be- 
hind the cuneiform process ; the foramina condyloidea 
posteriora, immediately behind the condyles ; and the fo- 
ramina condyloidea anteriora, immediately before the con- 
dyles. 

Ques. 99. What does the foramen magnum transmit ? 

Ans. The medulla spinalis, the nervi accessorii, the 
vertebral arteries, and sometimes the vertebral veins. 

Ques. 100. What does the foramen condyloideum 
posterius transmit? 

Ans. They transmit the cervical nerves and the lateral 
sinus. 

Ques. 101. What does the foramen condyloideum 
anterius transmit ? 

Ans. The ninth pair of nerves to the tongue. 

Ques. 102. What is the foetal state of this bone? 

Ans. The cuneiform process, the two sides of the great 
foramen, and all the bone posterior to it, are easily in the 
foetal state separable into four portions. 

Ques. 103. What are the connexions of this bone ? 

Ans. It is connected anteriorly to the sphenoid bone 
by synostosis ; inferiorly to the atlas by ginglymus com- 
positus ; laterally to the temporal bones by the addita- 
menta of the lambdoidal sutures ; and superiorly to the 
parietal bones by the lambdoidal suture itself. 

Ques. 104. What are the uses of this bone ? 

Ans. It forms the posterior, and a part of the inferior 
portion of the cranium ; it contains and defends the pos- 
terior lobes of the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and medulla 
oblongata ; and gives exit to the spinal marrow. 

Os Sphenoides. 

Ques. 105. What is the situation of the os sphe- 
noides ? 

4 



38 

Ans. It passes from one temple to another, across the 
middle of the base of the cranium. 

Ques. 106. What are its general divisions ? 

Ans. It is divided into a body situated in the middle, 
an ala on each side of it ; and two pterygoid portions at 
its inferior part. 

Ques. 107. What are the elevations of this bone ? 

Ans. They are the processes azygos, standing forward 
and downward from its body; the posterior clinoid pro- 
cesses, one on each side placed anterior to these ; the 
transverse spinous processes, which are lateral continu- 
ations of the anterior clinoid ; the ethmoidal process, 
projecting anteriorly between the two last ; the orbital 
process, portions of the ala turned towards the orbits ; the 
temporal processes, portions of the ala turned towards the 
temples ; the spinous processes, which are posterior parts 
of the ala ; the styliform processes, w T hich project down- 
ward from the points of the spinous ; the external ptery- 
goid plate, which is the outer part of the pterygoid portions ; 
and the internal pterygoid plate, surmounted by a hook- 
like process, forming the inner part of the pterygoid 
portions. 

Ques. 108. What is attached to its processus azygos ? 

Ans. The vomer. 

Ques. 109. What is attached to the internal side of 
its external pterygoid plate ? 

Ans. The pterygoideus externus. 

Ques. 110. What passes over the hook-like process 
of its internal pterygoid plate ? 

Ans. The tendon of the tensor palati. 
Ques. 111. What are the depressions of the os sphe* 
noides ? 

Ans. They are one on each side of its processus 
azygos ; one between its clynoid process, called the sella 
turcica ; a furrow on each side of that ; depressions on 
its orbitar processes ; depressions on its temporal pro- 



39 

cesses ; a farrow on the anterior edge of the last ; a 
• depression between the temporal process and the pterygoid 
portion of the bone ; the great superior concavities of the 
alae ; a furrow internal to the base of the pterygoid por- 
tions ; a small cavity behind the base of the internal 
pterygoid process ; and the fossa pterygoidea between the 
pterygoid processes. 

Ques. 112. What are the depressions on each side of 
the processus azygos ? 

Ans. They constitute a portion of the nares. 

Ques. 113. What is situated in the sella turcica? 

Ans. The pituitary gland. 

Ques. 114. What are situated in the furrows at its 
sides ? 

Ans. The carotid arteries. 

Ques. 115. What is situated in its temporal depres- 
sion? 

Ans. The temporal muscle. 

Ques. 116. What passes in the furrow on the anterior 
edge of its temporal depression ? 

Ans. A nerve from the superior maxillary to the tem- 
poral muscle. 

Ques. 117. What is placed in the depression between 
the temporal and the pterygoid processes of the bone ? 

Ans. The pterygoideus externus muscle. 

Ques. 118. What rests upon the internal cavity of 
each ala ? 

Ans. A middle lobe of the brain on each ala. 

Ques. 119. What passes in the furrow internal to the 
base of the pterygoid portion of the bone ? 

Ans. An artery, vein, and nerve pass to the nares. 

Ques. 120. What is situated in the cavity behind the 
base of the internal pterygoid process ? 

Ans. Part of the eustachian tube. 

Ques. 121. What is situated in the fossa pterygoidea ? 

Ans. The pterygoideus interims muscle. 



40 

Ques. 122. What are the foramina of this bone ? 

Ans. They are anteriorly the openings of its sinuses 
on each side of the processus azygos ; the foramina optica 
internal to its anterior clinoid processes ; the foramina 
lacera, placed between the transverse spinous processes 
and the roots of its ala ; the foramina rotunda, placed im- 
mediately below the former ; the foramina ovalia, placed 
somewhat externally and posteriorly to the last ; the 
foramina spinosa, placed posteriorly to these ; and the 
foramina vidia, which perforate the base of each pterygoid 
portion from before backward. 

Ques. 123. What are the uses of the sphenoidal si- 
nuses ? 

Ans. They serve to increase the tone of the voice. 

Ques. 124. What passes through the foramina op- 
tica? 

Ans. The optic nerves and the ophthalmic arteries. 

Ques. 125. What do the foramina lacera transmit ? 

Ans. The third, fourth, first branch of the fifth, and the 
sixth pair of nerves, except a reflected twig, which is 
supposed to form the commencement of the great sympa- 
thetic nerve. 

Ques. 126. What passes through the foramina ro- 
tunda ? 

Ans. The second branches of the fifth pair, or the su- 
perior maxillary nerves. 

Ques. 127. What does the foramina ovalia transmit ? 

Ans. The third branch of the fifth pair, or the inferior 
maxillary. 

Ques. 128. What passes through the foramen spino- 
sum? 

Ans. The spinous artery, or arteria meningea media to 
the dura mater. 

Ques. 129. What passes through the Vidian foramen? 

Ans. An artery and vein pass to the nares, and through 
this foramen the Vidian nerve enters the cranium, 



41 

Ques. 130. What is the condition of this bone in the 
foetal state ? 

Ans. In the foetus this bone has no sinuses, and is se- 
parable from its ala. 

Ques. 131. What are the connexions of this bone ? 

Ans. It is connected to the os frontis, os aethmoides, 
ossa malarum, ossa palati, ossa maxillaria, by the sphe- 
noidal suture, and to the vomer, by schindylesis ; poste- 
riorly to the os occipitis, by synostosis ; and laterally to 
the ossa parietalia, by its own suture. 

Ques. 132. What are the uses of this bone ? 

Ans. It forms some of the sides, and a considerable 
portion of the base of the cranium ; it supports the 
middle lobes of the brain ; it forms a part of the orbits ; 
it transmits numerous vessels and nerves, &c. 

Os JEthmoides. 

Ques. 133. What is the situation of the os aeth- 
moides ? 

Ans. It is situated in the middle of the anterior part of 
the base of the cranium. 

Ques. 134. What is its general form? 

Ans. It is somewhat cubical. 

Ques. 135. Of what portions does it consist? 

Ans. Of a cribriform lamella, a nasal lamella, two ossa 
plana, cellulae, and two ossa turbinata. 

Ques. 136. What is the situation of each of these 
portions ? 

Ans. The cribriform lamella is situated horizontally in 
the base of the cranium ; the nasal lamella passes per- 
pendicularly downward from the middle of it ; the ossa 
turbinata are situated at a little distance from the nasal 
lamella ; the cellulae are immediately external to the ossa 
turbinata ; and the ossa plana are the most external of 
all. 

4* 



42 

Ques. 137. What is the name of the process which 
rises from the cribriform lamellae ; and to what does it 
give attachment ? 

Ans. The name of the process is the crista galli, and 
it gives attachment to the falx cerebri. 

Ques. 138. What are the foramina of the cribriform 
lamella, and what do they transmit ? 

Ans. There are numerous holes for the transmission of 
the olfactory neives in the cribriform plate. 

Ques. 139. What are the foramina of the ossa turbi- 
nata superiora ; and what do they transmit ? 

Ans. There are numerous holes in this portion, and 
are for the expansion of the olfactory nerve. 

Ques. 140. What are the foramina of the ossa plana; 
and what do they transmit ? 

Ans. They are the foramina orbitaria interna, the an- 
terior of which transmits the nasal twig of the first branch 
of the fifth pair of nerves, and a small branch of the 
ophthalmic artery ; and the posterior a branch of the 
same artery. 

Ques. 141. What are the connexions of this bone ? 

Ans. It is joined to the os frontis, ossa nasi, ossa max- 
illaria superiora, ossa palati, and the os sphenoides, by 
the ethmoidal suture ; and to the vomer, by schindy- 
lesis. 

Ques. 142. What is the fetal state of this bone ? 

Ans. In a fcetus of nine months, the crista galli and 
nasal lamella not being ossified, the bone consists of two 
portions. 

Ques. 143. What are its uses ? 

Ans. It supports the anterior lobes of the brain ; gives 
attachment to the falx : transmits the olfactory nerves ; 
and forms part of the septum nasi. 



43 



Os Nasi. 

Ques. 144. What is the situation of the os nasi ? 

Ans. The os nasi is placed in the arch of the nose. 

Ques. 145. What is the form of this bone ? 

Ans. It is somewhat convex externally, concave inter- 
nally, narrow at its upper part, narrower still in the 
middle, and broadest at the base ; its root and anterior 
edge is thickest, the latter projecting inward to join the 
septum ; its outer edges superiorly are overlapped by the 
maxillary bones, and inferiorly overlap them ; its lower 
edges are thin and irregular. 

Ques. 146. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is connected superiorly to the frontal bone by 
the transverse suture, anteriorly to its fellow by the per- 
pendicular nasal harmonia : externally to the superior 
maxillary bone, by the oblique nasal harmonia ; posteriorly 
to the septum narium, by schindylesis ; and inferiorly to 
the cartilages of the nose. 

Ques. 147. What is its foetal state ? 

Ans. In the foetus it is proportionally shorter than in 
the adult. 

Ques. 148. What is its use ? 

Ans. It covers and defends the nares. 



Os Lachrymale. 

Ques. 149. What is the situation of the os lachry- 
male ; or, as it is sometimes called, the os unguis ? 

Ans. It is placed at the anterior edge of the inner side 
of the orbit. 

Ques. 150. What is the form of this bone 1 

Ans. Its external side consists of a flat posterior surface 
and an anterior groove ; its internal surface is exactly the 
reverse. 



44 

Ques. 151. What is situated in its groove ? 

Ans. The lachrymal sac. 

Ques. 152. What rests upon its flat surface? 

Ans. The ball of the eye rests in part on it. 

Ques. 153. What cavities do its inner surfaces cover? 

Ans. The aethmoidal cells. 

Ques. 154. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is joined to the os frontis, os sethmoides, and 
os maxillare, by the lachrymal sutures. 

Ques. 155. What is its foetal state ? 

Ans. It considerably resembles that of the adult. 

Ques. 156. What is its use ? 

Ans. It forms part of the groove for the lachrymal sac 
and duct, and also the anterior part of the inner side of 
the orbit. 

Os Mate. 

Ques. 157. What is the situation of the os malae ? 

Ans. It forms the prominence of the cheek. 

Ques. 158. What is the general form of this bone ? 

Ans. It is irregularly square. 

Ques. 159. What are the elevations of the os malae ? 

Ans. They are its maxillary process or inferior angle ; 
its inferior orbitar process, or superior angle of the inner 
side ; its internal orbitar process, projecting inward from 
its upper part ; its external orbitar process, or superior 
external angle ; and its zygomatic process, or inferior 
exterior angle. 

Ques. 160. What muscles arise from the outside of 
the zygomatic process ? 

Ans. The zygomatic muscles. 

Ques. 161. What is attached to the edge of the bone 
between the zygomatic and superior orbital process ? 

Ans. The aponeurosis of the temporal muscle. 

Ques, 162. What are its depressions ? 



45 

Ans. They are the orbital depression in the orbitar 
process, and the temporal depression behind the zygo- 
matic process. 

Ques. 163. What are lodged in these depressions ? 

Ans. The orbitar depression contains part of the ball 
of the eye, and the temporal depression part of the tem- 
poral muscle. 

Ques. 164. What are its foramina? 

Ans. It has but one foramen, placed below the middle 
of its upper edge. 

Ques. 165. What does this foramen transmit ? 

Ans. A nervous twig. 

Ques. 166. What is the foetal state of this bone ? 

Ans. It is fully ossified in a foetus at nine months. 

Ques. 167. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is connected at its posterior inferior angle to 
the os temporis, by the zygomatic suture ; at its superior 
orbitar process to the os frontis, by the transverse suture ; 
at its internal orbitar process to the orbital process of the 
sphenoid bone, by part of the sphenoidal suture ; to the 
orbitar process of the os maxillare, by the internal orbitar 
suture ; and at its anterior edge to the same bone, by the 
external orbitar suture. 

Ques. 168. What are its uses? 

Ans. It forms the prominence of the cheek and part of 
the orbit, protects the temporal muscles, and gives attach- 
ment to its aponeurosis. 

Os Maxillare Superius. 

Ques. 169. What is the situation of the os maxillare 
superius ? 

Ans. It is placed at the anterior inferior part of the 
upper maxilla. 

Ques. 170. What is the general form of this bone ? 

Ans. It is very irregular. 



46 

Ques. 171. What are the elevations of this bone ? 

Ans. They are seven in number; 1st, the alveolar pro- 
cess at its inferior edge ; 2d, the palatine process, pro- 
jecting backwards and inward from above the alveolar 
process ; 3d, the spinous process, rising from the inner 
edge of the palatine ; 4th, the nasal process, ascending 
from the anterior part of the alveolar ; 5th, the bulbous 
process, situated behind the nasal ; 6th, the orbitar pro- 
cess, which forms the upper part of the bulbous ; and 
7th, the malar process, which is placed at its outer 
side. 

Ques. 172. What are contained in the holes of the 
alveolar process^,? 

Ans. The teeth. 

Ques. 173. What is the use of the palatine process? 

Ans. It forms the floor of the nares, and the arch of 
the palate. 

Ques. 174. What is fixed to the spinous process 1 

Ans. The lower edge of the septum narium. 

Ques. 175. What rests in the groove on the outer side 
of the nasal process ? 

Ans. It forms with the groove of the lachrymal bone a 
cavity which contains the lachrymal sac. 

Ques. 176. To what muscle does the posterior part of 
the bulbous process give origin ? 

Ans. The pterygoideus externus. 

Ques. 177. From what part of the orbitar process does 
the obliquus inferior oculi arise ? 

Ans. From the anterior inner edge of the orbitar pro- 
cess. 

Ques. 178. What are the depressions of the os maxil- 
lare superius ? 

Ans. They are seven in number; 1st, the palatine de- 
pression on the lower side of the palatine process ; 2d, the 
nasal depression on its upper side ; 3d, a small depression 
on the forepart of the alveolar process ; 4th, a more con- 



47 

siderable one between the alveolar and malar processes ; 
5th, the temporal depression placed behind the malar pro- 
cess; 6th, the orbitar depression of the orbitar process; 
and 7th, the lachrymal depression on the posterior part of 
the nasal process. 

Ques. 179. What muscle is attached to the small de- 
pression on the anterior part of the alveolar process ? 

Ans. The depressor labii superioris. 

Ques. 180. What muscles are attached to the depres- 
sion between the alveolar and malar processes. 

Ans. The levator labiorum communis, and levator labii 
superioris. 

Ques. 181. What is situated in the temporal depres- 
sion? 

Ans. The temporal muscle. 

Ques. 182. What are the foramina of this bone"? 

Ans. They are four in number, two proper and two 
common; 1st, the infra orbitar foramen below the anterior 
inferior edge of the orbit, being the opening of a canal which 
passes forward under the orbitar process ; 2d, the foramen 
incisivum, placed behind the inner incisor tooth, joining its 
fellow at the other side inferiorly, but being distinct from it 
superiorly ; 3d, the spheno-maxillary fissure at the outer 
side of the orbit, and the palatine foramen common to this 
and the palate bone; 4th, the opening of the antrum max- 
illare between the two turbinated bones. 

Ques. 183. What does the infra orbitar foramen trans- 
mit? 

Ans. A branch of the second branch of the fifth pair of 
nerves, and a branch of the internal maxillary artery. 

Ques. 184. What does the foramen incisivum trans- 
mit? 

Ans. A small artery, vein, and nerve. 

Ques. 185. What does the spheno-maxillary fissure 
transmit ? 

Ans. Twigs of arteries, veins, and nerves* 



48 

Ques. 186. What does the palatine foramen transmit? 

Ans. The palatine artery and nerve. 

Ques. 187. What is the fetal state of this bone? 

Ans. In the foetal state the bulbous and palatine pro- 
cesses are imperfect, some months before birth the rudi- 
ments of the first set of teeth are distinctly formed. 

Ques. 188. What are its connexions? 

Ans. It is joined by the tip of its nasal process to the 
os frontis by the transverse suture, by the side of the 
nasal process to the os unguis by the lachrymal suture, by 
the anterior edge of the nasal process to the os nasi by the 
oblique nasal suture, by the malar process to the os mala? 
by the external orbitar sutures, by its orbitar process to 
the os malee, by the internal orbitar suture, by the same 
process to the aethmoid bone by the aethmoidal suture, 
by its bulbous process to the os palati by the maxillo 
palatine suture, by its palatine process to the palate bone 
by the transverse palatine suture, by its spinous process 
to the vomer by schindylesis, by the sockets in the alveo- 
lar process to the teeth by gomphosis, by its palatine pro- 
cess to its fellow, by the longitudinal palatine suture, 
above the middle incisor teeth to its fellow by the mysta- 
chial suture, and to the inferior turbinated bone by the 
transverse nasal suture. 

Ques. 189. What are its uses? 

Ans. It forms a great part of the upper maxilla, com- 
poses a part of the orbit, nose, and palate, gives origin to 
various muscles, and transmission to nerves, arteries, and 
veins. 



49 



Os Palati. 



Ques. 190. What is the situation of the os palati? 

Ans. It is placed at the posterior part of the orbit, nares, 
and palate. 

Ques. 191. What are its general divisions? 

Ans. It is divided into four portions, namely, its pala- 
tine, pterygoid, nasal, and orbitar processes. 

Ques. 192. What is the situation of its palatine pro- 
cess ? 

Ans. It is placed at the posterior part of the arch of the 
palate. 

Ques. 193. What is the situation of its nasal lamella? 

Ans. It is placed posteriorly and externally to the 
former. 

Ques. 194. What is the situation of its pterygoid pro- 
cess ? 

Ans. It ascends from the outer edge of its palatine 
portion. 

Ques. 195. What is the situation of its orbitar pro- 
cesses ? 

Ans. The posterior one is connected to the base of the 
sphenoid bone* and the anterior one is placed at the back 
of the lower side of the orbit. 

Ques. 196. What are the elevations of the os palati ? 

Ans. They are its spinous process, rising from the 
inner edge of the palatine process ; and a transverse ridge 
on the inside of its nasal portion. 

Ques. 197. What is attached to the upper edge of the 
spinous process ? 

Ans. Part of the edge of the vomer. 

Ques. 198. What is attached to the posterior end of 
the spinous process ? 

Ans. The azygos uvulae. 
5 



50 

Ques. 199. What is attached to the posterior semicir* 
eular edge of the palatine portion ? 

Ans. The velum pendulum palati. 

Ques. 200. What is attached to the transverse ridge 
on the inside of the nasal lamella ? 

Ans. The posterior end of the inferior turbinated bone. 

Ques. 201. What are the depressions of the os pa- 
lati ? 

Ans. They are one on the upper part of the palatine 
portion for the nares ; another on its lower part for the 
palate ; and three upon the posterior part of the pterygoid 
portion, of which the lateral ones receive the pterygoid 
processes of the sphenoid bone, and the middle one con- 
tributes to form the fossa pterygoidea. 

Ques. 202. What are the foramina of the os palati ? 

Ans. Besides the foramen properly called palatine, and 
common to this bone with the superior maxillary, there 
are several smaller ones which pass upward to join it. 

Ques. 203. What is the foetal sta^e of this bone ? 

Ans. In a nine months' foetus its form is considerably 
perfect ? 

Ques. 204. What are the connexions of the os palati ? 

Ans. It is connected by the anterior edge of its pala- 
tine portion to the os maxillare superius, by the transverse 
palatine suture ; by its nasal and anterior orbitar process 
to the same bone, by the maxillo palatine suture ; by its 
pterygoid process, and the back of its nasal portion to the 
pterygoid portion of the sphenoid bone, by the sphenoid 
suture ; by its orbitar process to the sethmoid bone, by 
the aethmoidal suture ; by the transverse ridge of its nasal 
portion to the inferior turbinated bone, by the transverse 
nasal suture ; by its orbitar process to the body of the 
sphenoid bone, by the sphenoidal suture ; by the internal 
edges of its palatine portion to its fellow, by the longitu- 
dinal palatine suture ; and by its spinous process to the 
vomer, by schindylesis. 



51 



Ques. 205. What are the uses of the os palati ? 
Ans. It forms part of the orbits, nares, and palate, and 
of the sphenoidal, aethmoidal, and maxillary sinuses. 

Os Turbinatum Inferius. 

Ques. 206. What is the situation of the inferior tur- 
binated bone ? 

Ans. It is placed on the inner side of the nares. 

Ques. 207. What is the form of the inferior turbinated 
bone ? 

Ans. It somewhat resembles the superior one, but 
from its anterior part a small plate ascends to form part 
of the lachrymal duct, and from its posterior part another 
descends to cover a part of the antrum Highmorianum. 

Ques. 208. What is its foetal state ? 

Ans. In the foetus it considerably resembles its adult 
state. 

Ques. 209. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is joined to the os lachrymale, os maxillare, 
and os palati, by the transverse nasal suture. 

Ques. 210. What is the use of this bone ? 

Ans. Its use is to give expansion to nerves, and partly 
to form the antrum and lachrymal duct. 

Vomer. 

Ques. 211. What is the situation of the vomer ? 

Ans. It is placed in the middle of the nares, and forms 
the posterior inferior part of the septums. 

Ques. 212. What is the form of the vomer ? 

Ans. It is irregularly rhomboidal, consisting of two 
lamellae which leave a canal along its middle, and its 
posterior superior part is thickest. 

Ques, 313, What is its foetal state ? 



52 

Ans. In a foetus of nine months its lamellae are separated 
by cartilage. 

Ques. 214. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is connected by its anterior edge to the carti- 
lage of the septum ; to the spinous processes of the max- 
illary and palate bones, by schindylesis ; by its upper 
edge to the nasal lamellae of the aethmoid, and processus 
azygos of the sphenoid bone, also by schindylesis. 

Ques. 215. What are its uses ? 

Ans. Its chief uses are to divide the nares, and permit 
the expansion of the olfactory nerve. 



Os Maxillare Inferius. 

Ques. 216. What is the situation of the os maxillare 
inferius ? 

Ans. It is placed at the lower part of the face. 

Ques. 217. What are its general divisions ? 

Ans. It is divided into the chin, limited by the two 
anterior foramina ; the sides, extending backward from 
the foramina ; the angles, in which the sides terminate ; 
and the rami, which ascend from the angles. 

Ques. 218. What are its elevations ? 

Ans. They are the condyloid process, which is the 
posterior of the two arising from each ramus ; the coro- 
noid process, which is the anterior one ; a protuberance 
on the outer, and another on the inner side of each angle ; 
a ridge passing externally, and another internally, from 
the base of the coronoid process to the commencement of 
the chin ; a protuberance immediately behind the sym- 
physis of the jaw ; and another on each side the base of 
the chin. 

Ques. 219. What is attached to its coronoid pro- 
cesses ? 

Ans. The temporal muscles. 



53 

Ques. 220. What is attached to the outer sides of its 
angles ? 

Ans. The masseter muscles. 

Ques. 221. What is attached to the inner sides of its 
angles ? 

Ans. The internal pterygoid muscles. 

Ques. 222. What is attached to the line which passes 
internally from the base of the coronoid process to the 
commencement of the chin ? 

Ans. The mylo-hoideus muscle. 

Ques. 223. What is attached to the line which passes 
externally from the base of the coronoid process to the 
commencement of the chin ? 

Ans. The buccinator muscle. 

Ques. 224. What is attached to the protuberance im- 
mediately behind the symphysis of the jaw ? 

Ans. The frenum of the tongue superiorly, the genio- 
hyoidei inferiorly, and the genio-glossi between these. 

Ques. 225. What is attached to the projections on the 
anterior part of the base of the chin ? 

Ans. The depressores anguli oris et labii inferioris. 

Ques. 226. What are the depressions of the maxilla 
inferior ? 

Ans. There is one depression immediately before each 
condyloid process ; another on each side of the anterior 
surface of the chin ; and two on the base of the chin. 

Ques. 227. What is fixed to the depression before the 
condyloid process of the jaw ? 

Ans. The pterygoideus externus muscle. 

Ques. 228. What is attached to the depressions upon 
the anterior surface of the chin ? 

Ans. The depressores and levatores labii inferioics 
muscles. 

Ques. 229. What is attached to the depressions on 
the base of the chin ? 

Ans. The digastric muscles. 
5* 



54 

Ques. 230. What are the foramina of the maxilla in- 
ferior ? 

Ans. There are two foramina in this bone on each 
side ; one being placed externally and anteriorly, called 
the mental foramen, the other internally and posteriorly. 
They are openings of the same canal. 

Ques. 231. What do the foramina of the lower jaw 
transmit ? 

Ans. The inferior maxillary artery and vein, and a 
branch of the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves to 
the teeth. The mental foramen transmits some of their 
branches to the chin. 

Ques. 232. What passes through the small canal which 
descends on the inner side of the posterior foramen? 

Ans. A nervous twig passes to the sublingual gland 
and mylo-hyoideus. 

Ques. 233. What is the foetal state of this bone ? 

Ans. In the fetal state it is divided in two at the chin 
by a thin cartilage, hence this part has been called its 
symphysis, as in the upper jaw the rudiments of the first 
set of teeth are distinctly formed. 

Ques. 234. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is articulated by its condyloid processes to the 
temporal bone. 

Ques. 235. What are its uses ? 

Ans. It is useful in mastication, deglutition, and 
speech. 



The Teeth. 

Ques. 236. What is the number of teeth in the adult ? 
Ans. Thirty-two. 

Ques. 237. What is the situation of the teeth? 
Ans. They are fixed in the alveolar process of each 
jaw. 



55 

Ques. 238. Of what substances are the teeth com- 
posed ? 

Ans. They consist of two, one internal of the nature 
of bone, and the other external and hard, called enamel. 
Ques. 239. Upon what part of the teeth is the ena- 
mel thickest. 

Ans. Upon the tops of the teeth. 
Ques. 240. How are the fibres of the enamel arranged ? 
Ans. They are disposed as radii from the centre of 
each tooth. 

Ques. 241. How are the fibres of the bony part of 
the teeth arranged? 

Ans. They are generally arranged in a perpendicular 
direction. 

Ques. 242. Into what portions is each tooth divided? 
Ans. It is divided into a large portion external to the 
socket, called its corona ; into a narrow part below this, 
called its neck; and one, two, or three processes pro- 
ceeding from the neck, called the roots. 

Ques. 243. Where are the canals of the teeth situ- 
ated? 

Ans. The fangs, neck, and corona of each tooth are 
hollow. 

Ques. 244. What passes through these hollows? 
Ans. A branch of an artery, vein, and nerve. 
Ques. 245. Into what classes are the teeth divided? 
Ans. They are divided into three classes, namely, in- 
cisores, canina, and molares. 
Ques. 246. What is the number of the incisor teeth ? 
Ans. Eight ; four in the front part of each jaw. 
Ques. 247. What is the form of the incisor teeth? 
Ans. They somewhat resemble wedges, having a sharp 
cutting edge. 

Ques. 248. Which of the upper incisores are the 
largest ? 



56 

Ans. The two middle ones are the largest in the upper 
jaw. 

Ques. 249. Which of the lower incisores are the 
largest ? 

Ans. The lateral ones. 

Ques. 250. What is the situation of the canini? 

Ans. They are placed on each side of the incisores. 

Ques. 251. What is their number? 

Ans. They are four in number. 

Ques. 252. What is their form? 

Ans. They are larger and more pointed then the inci- 
sores, and resemble the tooth of the dog, from- which 
they take their name. 

Ques. 253. What is the situation of the molares? 

Ans. They are placed behind the canini. 

Ques. 254. What is their number? 

Ans. Twenty. 

Ques. 255. Which of the molares have been called 
bicuspides ? 

Ans. The two anterior on each side of both jaws. 

Ques. 256. What is their form ? 

Ans. They have a double pointed corona, and have one 
or two fangs. 

Ques. 257. Which of the molares have been termed 
dentes sapientiae ? 

Ans. The posterior molares, one on each side of both 
jaws. 

Ques. 258. What is their form ? 

Ans. They have a large irregular corona, and generally 
but one fang. 

Ques. 259. What is the foim of the third and fourth 
molares ? 

Ans. They have a large corona, and in the lower jaw 
have two, and in the upper three roots. 

Ques. 260. How are the teeth formed? 

Ans. The commencement of the formation of teeth is 



57 

by small pulpy substances, placed in the alveolar processes 
of the jaws. 

Ques. 261. When are the pulps of the teeth first dis- 
cernible ? 
Ans. About the fourth month of the fcetal state. 
Ques. 262. What is the appearance of the pulps of the 
teeth? 

Ans. They are firm, semi-transparent, and supplied 
with numerous vessels. 

Ques. 263. How are the pulps of the teeth invested? 

Ans. By thin capsules. 

Ques. 264. Into what layers are the membranes of the 
pulps of the teeth divisible ? 

Ans. They may easily be separated into two layers, of 
which the external is vascular and spongy. 

Ques. 265. What is interposed between the capsule 
and the pulp of the teeth. 

Ans. A small portion of fluid. 

Ques. 266. When does ossification commence in the 
pulps of the teeth ? 

Ans. About the eighth month. 

Ques. 267. In what manner? 

Ans. In one or more points. 

Ques. 268. To what part of the teeth are their cap- 
sules connected? 

Ans. To the neck of each tooth. 

Ques. 269. What is secreted by the capsules of the 
teeth ? 

Ans. The enamel. 

Ques." 270. How many teeth compose the first set? 

Ans. Twenty. 

Ques. 271. Of what kinds does the first set consist? 

Ans. Eight incisivi, four canini, and eight molares. 

Ques. 272. About what time do the teeth begin to 
appear through the gums ? 



58 

Ans. About the age of six months, though sometimes 
earlier, and are completed at two years old. 

Ques. 273. When do the teeth begin to shed? 

Ans. About seven years of age. 

Ques. 274. When are the teeth completely shed ? 

Ans. About fourteen years of age this process is gene- 
rally completed. 

Ques. 275. What is the immediate cause of the shed- 
ding of the teeth ? 

Ans. It is effected by the absorption of the fangs of the 
first set, and of their sockets. 

Ques. 276. What are the connexions of the teeth? 

Ans. They are articulated to the alveolar processes of 
the jaws. 

Ques. 277. What are their uses ? 

Ans. They are the direct instruments of mastication, and 
are of essential use in pronunciation. 

Os Hyoides, 

Ques. 278. What is the situation of the os hyoides? 1 

Ans. It is placed horizontally between the root of the 
tongue and the upper part of the larynx. 

Qnes. 279. Into what parts is it divided ? 

Ans. Into a body, two cornua, and two appendices. 

Ques. 280. What is the form of the body of the os 
hyoides ? 

Ans. It is horizontally somewhat oblong, convex an- 
teriorly, and concave posteriorly; its anterior convexity 
being divided by a middle horizontal ridge. 

Ques. 281. What muscles, ligaments, and membranes 
are attached to the body of the os hyoides ? 

Ans. The genio-hyoides and the bassio-glossi are in- 
serted into the space above the ridge, the mylo-hyoidei 
and stylo-hyoidei into the ridge itself, and the sterno- 
hyoidei and coraco-hyoidei into the space below the ridge. 



59 

The membranes and ligaments of the tongue, epiglottis, and 
thyroid cartilage are fixed to its upper edge. 

Ques. 282. What is the situation of the cornua of the 
os hyoides ? 

Ans. They are placed outward and backward from the 
body. 

Ques. 283. What is the form of the cornua? 

Ans. They have two flat sides, which slope from above 
downwards ; they diminish as they proceed backwards, 
and terminate in round tubercles. 

Ques. 284. What muscles, ligaments, and membranes 
are attached to the cornua of the os hyoides ? 

Ans. The cerato-glossus arises from the external sur- 
face of each cornu, and the hyo-thyroideus from its under 
edge. The membranes of the tongue and larynx adhere to 
its posterior side, and from the tubercle at the end of each 
a ligament proceeds to the cornua of the os hyoides. 

Ques. 285. What is the situation of the appendices of 
the os hyoides ? 

Ans. They project upwards from the junction of the 
body with the cornua. 

Ques. 286. What is fixed to the appendices 1 

Ans. The stylo-hyoidei alteri, the condro-glossi, and a 
ligament to the os hyoides. 

Ques. 287. What is the foetal state of this bone 1 

Ans. Except a point in the middle of its body, it is 
wholly cartilaginous in the fetal state. 

Ques. 288. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is connected to the styloid processes and thy- 
roid cartilage by ligaments. 

Ques. 289. What are the uses of this bone ? 

Ans. It forms a solid point for the insertion and action 
of the muscles of the organ of speech and deglutition. 

[Note. — We have now finished the bones of the head ; 
I have endeavoured to make the subject as full and yet as 



60 

plainas possible. A student taking this part of the exami- 
nations as his guide, and at the same time have the bones 
before him, cannot fail making himself completely master 
of the subject.] 



SECTION VII. 



OF THE BONES OF THE TRUNK. 

Ques. 1. Into what parts are the bones of the trunk 
divided ? 

Ans. The trunk is divided into the spine, thorax, and 
pelvis. 

Vertebrae. 

Ques. 2. What is the situation of the spine? 

Ans. It is situated along the posterior part of the trunk. 

Ques. 3. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It resembles a long, slender pyramid, formed of a 
long chain of bones superiorly, and a short one inferioily, 
joined by their bases. 

Ques. 4. What is the general division of the spine ? 

Ans. It is divided into the vertebrae, os sacrum, and os 
coccygis. 

Ques. 5. What is the number of the true vertebras ? 

Ans. Twenty-four. 



61 

Ques. 6. Into what classes are the true vertebrae di- 
vided ? 

Ans. They are subdivided into three classes ; namely, 
those of the neck or cervical, those of the back or dorsal, 
and those of the loins or lumbar vertebrae. 

Ques. 7. Of what parts do the vertebrae in general con- 
sist? 

Ans. Each vertebrae has a body, a bony ring, and seven 
processes. 

Ques. 8. What is the situation and form of the bodies 
of the vertebrae ? 

Ans. They are placed anteriorly, and represent a por- 
tion of a cylinder cut transversely, which is somewhat 
round anteriorly, and sloped posteriorly. 

Ques. 9. What are the names of the vertebral pro- 



cesses 



Ans. Four of them are oblique or articular, consisting 
of two superior and two inferior ; three serve the purpose 
of muscular attachment, of which two, from their situa- 
tion, are called transverse, and one spinous. 

Ques. 10. Where is the ring of the vertebrae situated? 

Ans. It is situated immediately behind the body, and 
within the processes. 

Ques. 11. What do the rings of the vertebrae when 
connected form ? 

Ans. The vertebral canal. 

Ques. 12. Where are the oblique or articular processes 
of the vertebras situated ? 

Ans. The oblique or articular processes are situated 
above and below the posterior part of the body. 

Ques. 13. Where are the transverse processes situated? 

Ans. They are situated at the sides of the ring. 

Ques. 14. Where are the spinous processes situated ? 

Ans. They are situated at the back of the ring. 

Ques. 15. Where are the notches of the vertebrae si- 
tuated? 

6 



62 

Ans. On each side, between the body and ring, there* 
are four notches, two being situated superiorly, and two 
inferiorly. 

Ques. 16. What is the use of these notches ? 

Ans. When two vertebras are joined together, these 
notches form holes which serve to transmit the intercostal 
nerves. 

Ques. 17* What is the internal structure of the verte- 
bras ? 

Ans. They are of a spongy texture. 

Ques. 18, How are the vertebras connected? 

Ans. They are connected to each other by their bodies* 
and by their articular processes* 



Cervical Vertebras, 

Ques. 19. What is the peculiar form of the bodies of 
the cervical vertebras ? 

Ans. They are flattened anteriorly, and are thinner than 
the other vertebras, their upper sides are concave from side 
to side, and their lower hollowed from before backward. 

Ques. 20. How do the spinous processes of the cer- 
vical in general differ from the rest ? 

Ans. They are more straight, and forked at the extre- 
mity, 

Ques. 21. How do the transverse processes of the 
cervical differ from the rest ? 

Ans. Their transverse processes are very short, slightly 
bifurcated, and perforated perpendicularly at their bases ; 
they are also grooved in the upper side. 

Ques. 22. How do their oblique processes differ from 
the rest of the vertebras ? 

Ans. They are more oblique, their cartilaginous sides 
in the upper ones being turned backward and upward, in 
the inferior ones forward and downward* 



63 



Atlas. 

Ques. 23. What is the name of the first vertebrae ? 

Ans. It is called the atlas. 

Ques. 24. What parts common to the other vertebrae 
are wanting in the atlas ? 

Ans. It has no body nor spinous process ; it is a simple 
ring. 

Ques. 25. How does the ring of the atlas differ from 
those of the rest 1 

Ans. Its ring is much larger. 

Ques. 26. What is the name of the anterior and pos- 
terior parts of the atlas ? 

Ans. They are called its anterior and posterior archs. 

Ques. 27. To what part of the atlas is the tooth-like 
process of the second vertebrae fixed ? 

Ans. To the posterior side of its anterior arch. 

Ques. 28. How do the transverse processes of the atlas 
differ from those of the rest ? 

Ans. They are longer than those of the rest, and termi- 
nate in an obtuse point. 

Ques. 29. How do the superior articular processes of 
the atlas differ from those of the rest? 

Ans. They are larger than the rest, and form oblong 
horizontal cavities, of which the anterior extremities are 
nearest. 

Ques. 30. How do the inferior articular processes dif- 
fer from those of the rest ? 

Ans. They are round, broad, and sloped inward. 

Ques. 31. What is seen immediately behind the su- 
perior articular processes of the atlas ? 

Ans. A long groove. 

Ques. 32. To what part of the atlas is the transverse 
ligament of the tootli-like process fixed ? 



64 

Ans. It is fixedjo a tuberosity on the inner side of its 
anterior arch. 

Ques. 33. To what part of the atlas are the lateral li- 
gaments fixed ? 

Ans. They are fixed on the inner side of the arch, ex- 
ternal to the transverse ligament. 

Dentata. 

Ques. 34. What is the name of the second cervical 
vertebrae ? 

Ans. It is called vertebra dentata. 

Ques. 35. How does the body of the dentata differ 
from those of the rest ? 

Ans. Its body is narrower and longer, and has upon its 
upper part a pivot or axis called odontoides or dens. 

Ques. 36. Where is the tooth-like process marked by 
the situation of its transverse ligament ? 

Ans. At the posterior part of the processus odontoides. 

Ques. 37. From what part of the tooth-like process 
does the perpendicular ligament arise ? 

Ans. From its apex. 

Ques. 38. From what part of the tooth-like process 
do the lateral ligaments arise ? 

Ans. Nearly from its apex, on each side of the per- 
pendicular ligament. 

Ques. 39. How does the spinous process of the den- 
tata differ from those of the rest ? 

Ans. It is short, broad, and much forked ; its lower 
side is hollowed by an angular cavity, and divided into 
two lateral parts by a bony line. 

Ques. 40. How do the transverse processes of this 
bone differ from the rest? 

Ans. They are very short, slightly turned downward, 
and perforated obliquely. 



65 



Ques. 41. How do the superior articular processes of 
this vertebra differ from those of the rest ? 

Ans. They are very large, a little convex, placed nearly 
horizontally on each side of the tooth-like process. 



Last Cervical Vertebra. 

Ques. 43. How does the body of the last cervical ver- 
tebra differ from those of the rest ? 

Ans. It is the largest of this class ; its lower side is 
nearly flat. 

Ques. 44. How does its spinous process differ from 
the rest? 

Ans. It is larger than any of them. 

Ques. 45. How does its transverse processes differ? 

Ans. They are longer, placed further back, and are less 
grooved ; their foramina also are sometimes double. 



Dorsal Vertebrae. 

Ques. 46. What is peculiar to the bodies of the dorsal 
vertebrae in general ? 

Ans. They are most convex anteriorly, their upper and 
lower surfaces are nearly flat, and on each side there are 
two little articular surfaces, one above and one below, to 
receive the heads of the ribs. 

Ques. 47. How do the spinous processes differ from 
the rest? 

Ans. They are long and sharp superiorly ; slightly hol- 
lowed inferiorly, and considerably inclined downward. 

Ques. 48. How do the articular processes differ? 

Ans. They are placed almost directly above and below 
the transverse, and are perpendicular rather than oblique ; 
the sides of the superior ones are slightly convex, and turned 
backward, those of the inferior the reverse. 

6* 



Ques. 49. How do the transverse processes differ? 

Ans. They are directed obliquely backwards and down- 
wards ; they are pretty long superiorly, but diminish as 
they descend, those of the twelfth being very small ; the 
anterior part of their tips are cartilaginous, and receive the 
tubercles of the ribs ; these depressions diminish as they 
descend, and do not exist in the two last. 

Ques. 50. How do the great foramina of the dorsal 
vertebrae differ from those of the rest ? 

Ans. The rings become rounder and narrower as they 
descend from the first to the tenth, where they again begin 
to be more flat. 

Ques. 51. How are the four first dorsal vertebrae dis- 
tinguished from the rest of the same class ? 

Ans. The four first are somewhat flattened anteriorly. 

Ques. 52. How are the two last dorsal vertebrae dis- 
tinguished from the rest of the same class ? 

Ans. In the last two the transverse processes have no 
articular depression. 



Lumbar Vertebrae. 

Ques. 53. How are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae 
distinguished from those of the dorsal and cervical ? 

Ans. They are by much the largest; they are some- 
what contracted about the middle, and their edges are pro- 
minent. 

Ques. 54. How are the spinous processes distinguished 
from those of the rest ? 

Ans. They are short, straight, and broad on each side, 
but narrow above and below ; that of the last being shorter 
and narrower than that of the rest. 

Ques. 55. How are the transverse processes distin- 
guished from the rest ? 

Ans. They are longer and more slender, being flattened 



67 

anteriorly and posteriorly ; they increase in length from 
the first to the third, then diminish to the fifth. 

Ques. 56. How are the articular processes distinguished 
from the rest ? 

Ans. The superior ones are concave lengthwise, the 
inferior convex lengthwise, and nearer each other than 
the superior, their convex articulating surfaces being 
turned outward from each other. 

Ques. 57. What is the shape of the great foramina of 
the lumbar vertebrae ? 

Ans. The rings are flattened anteriorly, and angular 
posteriorly. 

Os Sacrum. 

Ques. 58. What is the situation of the os sacrum ? 

Ans. It is placed at the posterior and lower part of the 
trunk, below the true vertebras. 

Ques. 59. What is its form ? 

Ans. It resembles a pyramid with the base upward and 
apex downward ; having an anterior or concave side, a 
posterior or convex one, and two edges. 

Ques. 60. Of how many portions does the os sacrum 
consist in the foetus ? 

Ans. Of five ; the points of separation between which 
are marked by prominent lines in the adult. 

Ques. 61. Where is the canal of the os sacrum situ- 
ated ? 

Ans. Immediately behind its body. 

Ques. 62. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is triangular? 

Ques. 63. How many foramina open from the canal 
of the sacrum anteriorly ? 

Ans. Four. 

Ques. 64. How many foramina posteriorly ? 

Ans. The same number. 



Ques. 65. What do the anterior foramina transmit ? 

Ans. The great sacral nerves. 

Ques. 66. How many articular processes has this 
bone? 

Ans. Two ; placed at its base immediately behind its 
body. 

Ques. 67. What is the form of the lateral parts of the 
sacrum ? 

Ans. They are large and broad superiorly ; they form 
an uneven narrow surface as they descend ? 

Ques. 68. What articular surfaces are seen on the 
lateral parts ? 

Ans. They have on each side a large articulating sur- 
face for its union with the ossa innominata. 

Ques. 69. What are the connexions of the os sacrum ? 

Ans. It is connected laterally to the ossa innominata, 
superiorly to the last lumbar vertebrae, and inferiorly to 
the os coccygis. 



Os Coccygis. 

Ques. 70. What is the situation of the os coccygis ? 

Ans. It is placed immediately below the sacrum ? 

Ques. 71. What is its form ? 

Ans. In its form it considerably resembles the os sa- 
crum. 

Ques. 72. Of how many portions does it consist ? 

Ans. It consists of four or five pieces. 

Ques. 73. Where are the shoulders of the os coccygis 
situated ? 

Ans. It has two processes ; one on each side of its 
upper portion, which have been called its cornua or 
shoulders. 



69 






Bones of the Thorax. 

Ques. 74. By what bones is the thorax formed ? 
Ans. It is formed by the dorsal vertebrae posteriorly, 
the ribs laterally, and sternum anteriorly. 



The Ribs. 



Ques. 75. What is the situation of the ribs ? 

Ans. They are placed transversely and obliquely on 
each side of the thorax. 

Ques. 76. What is the general form of the ribs ? \ 

Ans. They are bony arches of different sizes. 

Ques. 77. What is their number ? 

Ans. Twenty-four ; twelve on each side. 

Ques. 78. Into what classes are the ribs generally 
divided ? 

Ans. Into two classes ; the true and the false ribs. 

Ques. 79. What is the number of each class ? 

Ans. The seven superior ribs are called true ; the five 
inferior false. 

Ques. 80. Into what parts is each rib divided? 

Ans. Each rib is divided into the middle part or body, 
an anterior and a posterior extremity, the external or con- 
vex, and the internal or concave side, a superior and an 
inferior edge. 

Ques. 81. What is the situation of the head of the 
ribs? 

Ans. The posterior extremity of the ribs which is 
turned towards the vertebrae is called the head. 

Ques. 82. Where is the neck of the rib ? 

Ans. Immediately below the head. 

Ques. 83. Where is the tubercle of the rib situated ? 



70 

Ans. At a little distance from the head, on the posterior 
side of the rib. 

Ques. 84. Where is the angle of the rib situated ? 

Ans. At a little distance from the tubercle the bone 
forms a sudden bend which is called the angle. 

Ques. 85. Which is the rounded edge of the rib ? 

Ans. Its superior edge. 

Ques. 86. How is the inferior edge of the rib ? 

Ans. It is sharp, owing to a groove which runs along 
its inner side. 

Ques. 87. What is situated in this groove ? 

Ans. The intercostal artery, vein, and nerve. 

Ques. 88. Why is the groove of the inferior edge of 
the rib most strongly marked in the middle ? 

Ans. Because at the head of the rib the vessels have 
not joined it; and at its anterior extremity they have 
separated from it. 

Ques. 89. How is the head of the rib marked ? 

Ans. The head in general has two cartilaginous sur- 
faces to articulate with the little cavities formed by the 
union of the dorsal vertebrae with each other. 

Ques. 90. How is the tubercle of the rib marked ? 

Ans. A cartilaginous surface is seen on each tubercle. 

Ques. 91. To what is the tubercle of the rib con- 
nected ? 

Ans. To the transverse process of the vertebras above 
it. 

Ques. 92. At what distance is the angle from the tu- 
bercle of each rib I 

Ans. In the first rib the angle is not distinct from the 
tubercle, in the second it is at a small distance, and thence 
continues to increase to the third false rib. 

Ques. 93. What is the form of the anterior end of the 
ribs? 

Ans. The anterior ends of the true ribs are generally 
enlarged, those of the inferior false ribs generally diminish, 



n 

and both have a small concave depression to receive their' 
cartilaginous elongations. 

Ques. 94. Which of the ribs is the longest ? 

Ans. They increase in length as they descend to the 
seventh or eighth. 

Ques. 95. What is the relative elevation of the ends 
of the ribs 1 

Ans. The anterior extremity of each rib is lower than 
the posterior. 

Ques. 96. Whether is the anterior or posterior' parts 
of the ribs most crooked ? 

Ans. The back part of each rib is most curved. 

Ques. 97. Which of the ribs is most contorted ? 

Ans. The third false rib and those immediately above 
it. 

Ques. 98. How do the anterior extremities of the false 
ribs differ from those of the true ? 

Ans. The anterior extremities of the false ribs are con- 
siderably the smallest* 

Ques. 99. How does the first rib differ from the rest ? 

Ans. It differs in being placed horizontally, in having 
its head connected only to one vertebra, having no groove 
on its under edge, and being directly connected to the 
sternum. 

Ques. 100. How do the eleventh and twelfth ribs 
differ from the rest ? 

Ans. They have their heads connected each to one 
vertebra only, they have no connexion with the trans- 
Verse processes, and no groove on their inferior edge. 

Ques. 101. Which of the ribs have the shortest carti- 
lages ? 

Ans. The superior ribs. 

Ques. 102. Which have the longest cartilages? 

Ans. The last true, and the first false rib. 

Ques. 16^. What is the direction of the cartilages of 
the ribs ? 



72 

Ans* They all bend forward, inward, and upward. 

Ques. 104. How many of the ribs are directly con* 
hected with the sternum ? 

Ans. The seven true ribs have their cartilages fastened 
directly to the sternum. 

Ques. 105. How many of the ribs are connected by 
their cartilages merely to the cartilages of others 1 

Ans. The three superior false ribs. 

Ques. 106. How many of the ribs are unconnected by 
their cartilages either to the sternum or to other carti- 
lages ? 

Ans. The two inferior false ribs ; and on this account 
have been termed by some floating ribs. 



Sternum. 

Ques. 107. What is the situation of the sternum? 

Ans. The sternum forms the anterior and middle part 
of the thorax. 

Ques. 108. What is its foim? 

Ans. It somewhat resembles a dagger. 

Ques. 109. Of how many portions does it consist? 

Ans. It consists of three portions. 

Ques. 110. What is the form of its upper portion? 

Ans. It is broad and thick superiorly, thinner and nar- 
rower below, nearly resembling a triangle with the three 
angles cut off. 

Ques. 111. By what is the superior edge of the upper 
portion hollowed ? 

Ans. It is excavated to admit the trachea in the great 
flexions of the head. 

Ques. 112. By what are the superior angles of the 
sternum depressed ? 

Ans. It is depressed at those points to receive the cla- 
vicles. 



73 

Ques. 113. How many depressions are seen on the 
sides of the upper portion of the sternum ? 

Ans. Each of the lateral edges have one depression 
and a half to lodge the anterior extremity of the first, and 
half of the second ribs. 

Ques. 114. What is the form of the second portion of 
the sternum ? 

Ans. It is flatter on both sides, and broader below than 
above. 

Ques. 115. What is attached to the outside of the 
middle portion of the sternum ? 

Ans. A part of the pectoral muscle. 

Ques. 116. What is attached to the innerside of its 
middle portion ? 

Ans. The mediastinum and triangularis sterni. 

Ques. 117. How many depressions are seen on the 
sides of the middle portion ? 

Ans. Five whole and two half depressions. 

Ques. 118. How are the depressions of the edges of 
the middle portion caused ? 

Ans. They lodge half the anterior extremity of the 
second ; all the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and half the 
seventh ribs. 

Ques. 119. What is the form of the third portion of 
the sternum ? 

Ans. It is somewhat cordiform ? 

Ques. 120. What depressions are on the sides of the 
third portions of the sternum ? 

Ans. At the upper part of each edge there is a half 
depression for the seventh rib. 

Ques. 121. What is the structure of the sternum ? 

Ans. It is cellular. 



74 



Bones of the Pelvis. 

Ques. 122. What is the situation of the pelvis ? 

Ans. It is situated at the lower part of the trunk. 

Ques. 123. What is its form ? 

Ans. It represents a kind of basin, of no regular figure. 

Ques. 124. Of what bones does the pelvis consist? 

Ans. It is formed by the os sacrum posteriorly, os coc- 
cygis inferiorly, and ossa innominata at its lateral and 
anterior parts. 

Ques. 125. How are the ossa innominata subdivided? 

Ans. Each os innominata is subdivided into three por- 
tions ; namely, the os ilium, os pubis, and os ischium ; 
these are considered as separate bones, on account of their 
being easily separable in young subjects. 



Os Mum. 

Ques. 126. What is the situation of the os ilium ? 

Ans. It forms the broad expanded superior part of the 
os innominatum. 

Ques. 127. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is of a triangular figure ; its broad flat sides are 
unequally convex and concave. 

Ques. 128. Into what parts is it divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into the crista ; basis ; anterior and 
posterior, and external and internal sides. 

Ques. 129. Where is the crista situated ? 

Ans. It forms the upper thick edge of the os ileum. 

Ques. 130. What are the edges of the crista of the 
ileum called? 

Ans. Its external and internal labium. 

Ques. 131. What are its anterior and posterior extre- 
mities called ? 



75 

Ans. They are called its anterior superior, and poste- 
rior superior spinous processes. 

Ques. 132. What is attached to the anterior superior 
spinous process ? 

Ans. Poupart's ligament and the Sartorius muscle. 

Ques. 133. Where are the anterior inferior, and pos- 
terior inferior spinous processes situated ? 

Ans. About an inch below the anterior, and at the same 
distance below the posterior superior processes. 

Ques. 134. What parts of the ilium are thickest ? 

Ans. Its basis, or inferior portion. 

Ques. 135. To form what notch does the ilium pos- 
teriorly contribute ? 

Ans. The great sacro-ischiatic notch. 

Ques. 136. To form what cavity does the outside of 
the base of the ilium contribute ? 

Ans. It forms part of the acetabulum, or great articular 
cavity of the os innominatum, called so from its resem- 
blance to the vinegar cup of the ancients. 

Ques. 137. How much does the ilium contribute to 
the acetabulum ? 

Ans. Somewhat less than two-fifths. 

Ques. 138. What muscles are attached to the outer 
labium of this bone ? 

Ans. The aponeurosis fascia lata, the latissimus dorsi 
and external oblique muscle of the abdomen, and poste- 
riorly the gluteus maximus. 

Ques. 139. What muscles are attached to the line 
extending on the dorsum of the ilium from its anterior 
superior spinous process to the sciatic notch ? 

Ans. The gluteus medius. 

Ques. 140. What muscle is attached to the semicir- 
cular ridge immediately above the acetabulum 1 

Ans. The gluteus minimus. 

Ques. 141. What muscle is situated in the hollow of 
the inner side of the ileum ? 



76 

Ans. The iliacus internus. 

Ques. 142. What is the appearance of the posterior 
part of the inner side of this bone ? 

Ans. There are found two articular surfaces correspond- 
ing to those of the sacrum. 

Ques. 143. What part of the ilium distinguishes the 
cavity of the pelvis from that of the abdomen ? 

Ans. A smooth ridge which traverses the inner side of 
the base of this bone. 



Os Ischium. 

Ques. 144. What is the situation of the os ischium ? 

Ans. It is situated at the lowest part of the os innomi- 
natum. 

Ques. 145. Into what parts is it divided ? 

Ans. Into a body, a tuberosity, and a ramus. 

Ques. 146. Where is the spine of the ischium ? 

Ans. Upon the posterior part of its body is found its 
spinous process. 

Ques. 147. What is attached to its spinous process ? 

Ans. The lesser sacro-ischiatic ligament, and the coc- 
cygeus internally. 

Ques. 148. Where is the tuberosity of the ischium? 

Ans. It is situated at the lower and posterior part of 
its body, where the ramus joins it; it is that part of the 
bone upon which we rest in sitting. 

Ques. 149. What muscles arise from the tuberosity- 
of the ischium ? 

Ans. The quadratus femoris externally ; the semi- 
membranosis, semitendinosus, and biceps, about its mid- 
dle part ; the great head of the triceps from its inferior 
part ; the great sacro-ischiatic ligament is also attached to 
its inner part. 

Ques. 150. What is the situation of its ramus? 



77 

Ans. It ascends forwards from the tuberosity. 

Ques. 151. What are the notches of the os ischium? 

Ans. By a very considerable notch anteriorly it con- 
tributes to form the obturator foramen ; a notch posteriorly 
between the tuberosity and the spine for the obturator 
muscle ; one laterally between the tuberosity and aceta- 
bulum for the obturator externus ; and one anteriorly at 
the edge of the acetabulum for ligaments ; vessels and 
fat are also noticed. 



Os Pubis. 

Ques. 152. What is the situation of the os pubis ? 

Ans. It is situated at the anterior part of the pelvis. 

Ques. 153. Into what parts is the os pubis divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into a body, angle, and branch. 

Ques. 154. What is the situation of the body of the 
os pubis ? 

Ans. It forms its upper part ; situated before the base 
of the os ilium. 

Ques. 155. How much does the os pubis contribute 
to form the acetabulum ? 

Ans. One-fifth. 

Ques. 156. Where does the os pubis mark the limits 
of the pelvis ? 

Ans. A line on the inner side of its body forms part of 
the brim of the pelvis. 

Ques. 157. Where is the spine of the os pubis ? 

Ans. It is situated about an inch from the angle. 

Ques. 158. What does its spine give attachment to ? 

Ans. It gives attachment to Poupart's ligament, and in 
part to the rectus and pyramidalis abdominis. 

Ques. 159. To what foramen does the os pubis con- 
tribute ? 

Ans. The obturator foramen. 
7* 



78 

Ques. 160. Where is the angle of the os pubis ? 
Ans. It is situated anteriorly ; formed by the junction 
of the body and ramus. 

Ques. 161. Where is its ramus ? 
Ans. It descends from its angle. 



Acetabulum. 

Ques. 162. How is the acetabulum formed ? 

Ans. One-fifth of the acetabulum is formed by the os 
pubis, rather more than two-fifths by the os ischium, and 
less than two-fifths by the os ilium. 

Ques. 163. What part of the edge of the acetabulum 
is most prominent ? 

Ans. The upper part of its brim. 

Ques. 164. What portion of the acetabulum is with- 
out cartilage ? 

Ans. Between its middle and its inferior notch. 

Ques. 165. What is situated in that portion of the 
acetabulum which is uncovered by cartilage ? 

Ans. A ligament and synovial glands. 

Ques. 166. Where is the notch of the acetabulum si- 
tuated ? 

Ans. Towards its lower part. 

Ques. 167. What is the use of this notch? 

Ans. It transmits certain vessels, &c. 

Ques. 168. What are the connexions of the os inno- 
minatum ? 

Ans. It is connected posteriorly to the os sacrum ; 
anteriorly to its fellow, forming the symphisis pubis ; and 
laterally and inferiorly to the thigh bone. 



79 



SECTION VIII. 

OF THE BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. How are the bones of the upper extremity 
divided 1 

Ans. The bones of the upper extremity are divided 
into four classes ; namely, those of the shoulder, the arm, 
the fore arm, and the hand. 



Bones of the Shoulder. 

Ques. 2. Of how many bones does the shoulder con- 
sist? 

Ans. Of two ; the scapula and clavicle. 



Scapula. 

Ques. 3. What is the situation of the scapula ? 

Ans. It is placed laterally at the upper and posterior 
part of the thorax from about the first to the seventh rib. 

Ques. 4. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat triangular. 

Ques. 5. What parts of the scapula are generally 
enumerated ? 

Ans. Its regions are an external or posterior and con- 
vex side ; an internal or anterior concave side, three edges 
of which one is named the basis and two costa ; a supe- 
rior and an inferior ; three angles, one anterior called the 
neck, one superior, and one inferior. 



80 



Ques. 6. What is the situation of the base of the sca- 
pula? 

Ans. The base is the longest and thinnest edge turned 
towards the spine ; its upper part being nearer the ver- 
tebras than the lower. 

Ques. 7. What is the situation of the superior costa ? 

Ans. It is situated almost transversely between the 
superior point of the base and the neck of the scapula ; 
being most raised toward the base. 

Ques. 8. Where is the notch of the scapula? 

Ans. At the anterior part of the superior costa. 

Ques. 9. What passes through this notch ? 

Ans. The supra scapular vessels and nerves. 

Ques. 10. What is the situation of the inferior costa? 

Ans. It is situated obliquely between the inferior point 
of the base and the neck of the scapula. 

Ques. 11. Which edge of the scapula is the thickest? 

Ans. Its inferior edge or costa. 

Ques. 12. Where is the neck of the scapula ? 

Ans. It forms the anterior angle. 

Ques. 13. How is the neck of the scapula terminated ? 

Ans. By a glenoid cavity. 

Ques. 14. What process proceeds from the neck of 
the scapula ? 

Ans. The coracoid process. 

Ques. 15. What is attached to the tuberosity of the 
coracoid process ? 

Ans. The coraco-clavicular and coraco-acromial liga- 
ments. 

Ques. 16. What muscles arise from the tip of the 
coracoid process ? 

Ans. Three ; namely, the pectoralis minor internally : 
the coraco-brachialis ; and the short head of the biceps. 

Ques. 17. What muscle arises from above the glenoid 
cavity ? 

Ans. The long head of the biceps. 



81 

Ques. 18. What is the appearance of the dorsum of 
the scapula ? 

Ans. It is unequally convex. 

Ques. 19. What process arises from the dorsum of the 
scapula ? 

Ans. The spine of the scapula, which divides the dor- 
sum of the scapula into two portions. 

Ques. 20. What muscle is attached to the superior 
side of the spine of the scapula ? 

Ans. The trapezius. 

Ques. 21. What muscle arises from the inferior edge 
of its spine ? 

Ans. The deltoid. 

Ques. 22. In what process does the spine of the sca- 
pula terminate ? 

Ans. The acromion process. 

Ques. 23. What is the form of the acromion ? 

Ans. It is broad and flat. 

Ques. 24. What is attached to the upper edge of the 
acromion near its apex ? 

Ans. The scapular end of the clavicle. 

Ques. 25. What muscle arises from the inferior and 
anterior edges of the acromion ? 

Ans. The deltoid. 

Ques. 26. Into what cavities does the spine divide the 
dorsum of the scapula ? 

Ans. Into the supra-spinal and infra-spinal fossae. 

Ques. 27. Whether is the supra-spinal or infra-spinal 
largest ? 

Ans. The infra-spinal is the largest. 

Ques. 28. What is situated in the supra-spinal fossa ? 

Ans. The supra-spinatus muscle. 

Ques. 29. What is situated in the infra-spinal fossa ? 

Ans. The infra-spinatus muscle. 

Ques. 30. What arises from the groove, below the 
infra-spinal fossa, on the inferior costa of the scapula ? 



82 



Ans. The teres minor. 

Ques. 31. What muscle arises from the flat surface on 
the outside of the inferior angle of the scapula ? 

Ans. The teres major. 

Ques. 32. What muscle passes over the inferior angle 
of this bone ? 

Ans. The latissimus dorsi. 

Ques. 33. What is the appearance of the inner side of 
the scapula ? 

Ans. It is irregularly concave. 

Ques. 34. What muscle is situated on the inner side 
of the scapula ? 

Ans. The subscapularis. 

Ques. 35. What is the general structure of the sca- 
pula? 

Ans. The thicker parts of the bone possess a diploe ; 
the thin parts have none, and are transparent. 

Ques. 36. What are the connexions of the scapula? 

Ans. It is connected to the clavicle by the acromion, 
and to the os humeri by its glenoid cavity. 



Clavicle. 

Ques. 37. What is the situation of the clavicle ? 

Ans. It is placed transversely and somewhat obliquely 
at the upper and anterior part of the thorax, between the 
scapula and sternum. 

Ques. 38. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It has a considerable resemblance to an italic f. 

Ques. 39. Into what parts is it divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into a body, and an internal or 
sternal and an external or scapular extremity. 

Ques. 40. What is the form of the sternal end of the 
clavicle ? 

Ans. It is somewhat triangular. 



•83 

Ques. 41. What is attached to the posterior angle of 
the sternal end ? 

Ans. The inter-clavicular ligament. 

Ques. 42. With what is the tubercle at the posterior 
part near the humeral end connected ? 

Ans. It is connected by a strong ligament to the cora- 
coid process of the scapula. 

Ques. 43. What is the form of the scapular end of the 
clavicle ? 

Ans. It is flat and broad. 

Ques. 44. What muscle arises from the anterior edge 
of the scapular end of this bone ? 

Ans. The deltoid. 

Ques. 45. What muscle is inserted into the posterior 
edge of the scapular end ? 

Ans. The trapezius. 

Ques. 46. What muscle arises from the anterior edge 
of the inner half of the clavicle ? 

Ans. The pectoralis major. 

Ques. 47. What muscle is inserted into the inferior 
side of the clavicle ? 

Ans. The subclavius. 

Ques. 48. What is the structure of the clavicle ? 

Ans. The extremities are cellular; while its middle, 
having thick sides, possesses a narrow cavity, filled with 
bony filaments. 

Ques. 49. What are the connexions of the clavicle ? 

Ans. It is connected internally to the first bone of the 
sternum, and externally to the acromion. 



Os Humeri. 

Ques. 50. What is the situation of the os humeri ? 
Ans. It is placed under the acromion, along the side of 
the thorax. 



84 



Ques. 51. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is irregularly cylindrical. 

Ques. 52. Into what parts is it divided ? 

Ans. Into a body, and a superior and inferior extremity. 

Ques. 53. What is the form and direction of the head 
of the os humeri ? 

Ans. It is formed by a round, smooth head, and inclines 
obliquely inward. 

Ques. 54. Where are the tuberosities of the humerus 
situated ? 

Ans. Externally, and somewhat inferiorly, to the head 
of the bone. 

Ques. 55. How are these tuberosities distinguished? 

Ans. One is called the internal or small, the other the 
external or great tuberosity. 

Ques. 56. W'hat muscle is inserted into the internal 
tuberosity 1 

Ans. The subscapularis. 

Ques. 57. What muscles are inserted into the great 
tuberosity ? 

Ans. The supra-spinatus, infra-spinatus, and teres 
minor. 

Ques. 58. What is situated between these tuberosities ? 

Ans. A very considerable groove. 

Ques. 59. What passes through this groove ? 

Ans. The tendon of the long head of the biceps. 

Ques. 60. What is called the neck of the humerus ? 

Ans. The slight circular depression immediately below 
its head. 

Ques. 61. What arises from the posterior part of the 
neck ? 

Ans. The internal head of the triceps. 

Ques. 62. What is inserted into the ridge external to 
the groove? 

Ans. The pectoralis major muscle. 



85 

Ques. 63. What is inserted into the ridge internal to 
the groove ? 

Ans. The latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles ? 

Ques. 64. What is inserted into the great muscular 
depression on the outer side of the middle of the os hu- 
meri? 

Ans. The deltoid muscle. 

Ques. 65. What is inserted into the ridge on the inner 
side of the middle of the os humeri ? 

Ans. The coraco-brachialis. 

Ques. 66. At what part, and in what direction, does 
the medullary artery of this bone enter ? 

Ans. It enters about the middle of the anterior side of 
the bone, and slants downward. 

Ques. 67. What is the form of the lower part of the 
os humeri ? 

Ans. The lower extremity becomes gradually flatter 
and broader than the rest of this bone ; having an outer 
and an inner edge which terminate in two processes. 

Ques. 68. What are the names of these two processes ? 

Ans. The outer and inner condyles. 

Ques. 69. Which of the condyles is the largest? 

Ans. The inner one is the largest and most projecting. 

Ques. 70. What muscles generally arise from the ex- 
ternal condyle ? fc 

Ans. The two extensors and supinators of the hands. 

Ques. 71. What muscles arise from the internal con- 
dyle ? 

Ans. The flexors and pronators of the hands. 

Ques. 72. Where is the trochlea of the os humeri 
situated ? 

Ans. Between and somewhat below the two condyles. 

Ques. 73. What is the form of the trochlea ? 

Ans. It is an oblique, pulley-like articular surface ; its 
inner edge is the most prominent ; a small round articular 
head is placed between it and the outer condyle. 

8 



j 



86 

Ques. 74. What is the form of the os humeri imme- 
diately above the trochlea ? 

Ans. Above these parts there are two slight depressions 
anteriorly, and a very considerable one posteriorly. 

Ques. 75. To what are the depressions above the 
trochlea adapted ? 

Ans. The posterior one receives the olecranon when 
the arm is extended ; the inner anterior one receives the 
coronoid process of the ulna ; and the outer anterior one 
receives the round head of the radius in the flexions of the 
forearm. 

Ques. 76. What is the particular situation of the os 
humeri ? 

Ans. In its natural situation the hemispherical head of 
this bone is turned inwards and backwards ; the great tu- 
berosity outward and forward ; the groove between the 
two tuberosities directly forward ; the external condyle 
forward and outward ; and the internal condyle backward 
and inward. 

Ques. 77. What is the structure of the os humeri ? 

Ans. The extremities are cellular ; but the middle has 
a tubular cavity, and several bony filaments passing across 
it. 

Ques. 78. What are the connexions of the os humeri ? 

Ans. It is connected superiorly with the glenoid cavity 
of the scapula ; and inferiorly with the ulna by its troch- 
lea ; and with the radius by its little round head. 



Bones of the Forearm. 

Ques. 79. Of how many bones does the forearm con- 
sist? 

Ans. The forearm consists of two bones ; namely, the 
ulna and radius. 

Ques. 80. What is the situation of the ulna 1 



87 

Ans. It is situated on the inner side of the forearm. 

Ques. 81. "What is its form ? 

Ans. It is a cylindrical bone, and in its circumference 
irregularly triangular. 

Ques. 82. How is it divided ? 

Ans. Into a body and two extremities. 

Ques. 83. What are its chief eminences ? 

Ans. The olecranon and coronoid processes. 

Ques. 84. What is the situation of the olecranon 1 

Ans. It forms the upper extremity of this bone. 

Ques. 85. What muscle is inserted into it ? 

Ans. The triceps extensor cubiti. 

Ques. 86. Where is the coronoid process 1 

Ans. It is situated on the anterior part of the bone 
somewhat lower than the olecranon. 

Ques. 87. What musele is inserted into it ? 

Ans. The brachialis internus. 

Ques. 88. Where is the olecranon lodged when the 
forearm is extended ? 

Ans. It is lodged in the posterior depression of the 
inferior end of the humerus. 

Ques. 89. Where is the coronoid process lodged 
during the flexion of the forearm ? 

Ans. It is lodged in the anterior and inner depression 
of the lower end of the humerus. 

Ques. 90. What is the use of the triangular surface 
on the posterior part of the olecranon ? 

Ans. It forms the part of the elbow on which we rest. 

Ques. 91. What is lodged in the fossa external to the 
triangular surface ? 

Ans. The anconeus muscle. 

Ques. 92. Where is the greater sigmoid cavity of the 
ulna ? 

Ans. It is in the articular surface formed between the 
olecranon and coronoid processes. 

Ques. 93. What is its use ? 



88 

Ans. It articulates with the trochlea of the os humeri. 

Ques. 94. Where is the lesser sigmoid cavity ? 

Ans. It is situated on the outside of the root of the 
coronoid process. 

Ques. 95. What is its use ? 

Ans. It receives the round head of the radius. 

Ques. 96. What is the form of the body of the ulna ? 

Ans. It is triangular. 

Ques. 97. What is attached to the outer sharp edge 
of the ulna ? 

Ans. The interosseous ligament. 

Ques. 98. What is the situation of the canal for the 
medullary artery of the ulna ? 

Ans. It is placed about the middle of the anterior part 
of the bone, and slants upward. 

Ques. 99. What is the form of the inferior extremity 
of the ulna ? 

Ans. It has a small head externally, and a styloid pro- 
cess internally. 

Ques. 100. What is attached to the styloid process ? 

Ans. A ligament from the os pisiforme. 

Ques. 101. What passes in the groove on the anterior 
side of the termination of the ulna ? 

Ans. The ulna artery and nerve. 

Ques. 102. What passes in the groove on the posterior 
side of its termination ? 

Ans. The tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris. 

Ques. 103. What is the structure of the ulna? 

Ans. Its structure resembles that of the os humeri. 

Ques. 104. What are the connexions of the ulna ? 

Ans. It is connected superiorly with the pulley of the 
os humeri ; laterally with the two extremities of the 
radius, and with the hand inferiorly. 



89 



Radius. 



Ques. 105. What is the situation of the radius ? 

Ans. It is placed on the outer side of the forearm. 

Ques. 106. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is a cylindrical bone irregularly triangular. 

Ques. 107. What are the relative lengths of the radius 
and ulna ? 

Ans. The radius is the shortest. 

Ques. 108. How is the radius divided? 

Ans. Into a head, body, and basis. 

Ques. 109. What is the form of the head ? 

Ans. The upper part of the head is concave for con- 
nexion with the small round head of the humerus ; and 
its circumference is cylindrical. 

Ques. 110. With what is the head of the radius arti- 
culated laterally ? 

Ans. With the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna. 

Ques. 111. What is the situation and direction of the 
neck of the radius ? 

Ans. It is situated immediately below the head, and its 
direction is somewhat oblique. 

Ques. 112. Where is the tuberosity of the radius 
situated ? 

Ans. On the inner and anterior side, immediately be- 
low the neck. 

Ques. 113. What is attached to the tuberosity of the 
radius ? 

Ans. The biceps flexor cubiti. 

Ques. 114. What is the form of the body of the 
radius ? 

Ans. It is somewhat triangular. 

Ques. 115. What is attached to the inner sharp edge 
of the radius ? 

8* 



90 



Ans. The interosseous ligament. 

Ques. 116= What is the situation and direction of the 
canal of the medullary artery of the radius ? 

Ans. It enters about the middle of the anterior side of 
the bone, and slants upward. 

Ques. 117. What is the relative size of the two ends 
of the radius ? 

Ans. The inferior extremity i& the largest. 

Ques. 118. What is the form of its inferior extremity ? 

Ans. Its greatest diameter is from side to side. 

Ques. 119. For what purpose is the anterior side of 
the inferior end of the radius hollowed ? 

Ans. It is hollowed for the passage of the flexor ten- 
dons. 

Ques. 120. What is received into the depression on 
the inner side of the radius 1 

Ans. The inferior head of the ulna. 

Ques. 121. What pass in the grooves on the posterior 
side ? 

Ans. The extensor tendons. 

Ques. 122. What is the situation of the styloid pro- 
cess of the radius. 

Ans. It is placed on the inferior end of its outer side. 

Ques. 123. What is attached to the styloid process ? 

Ans. A ligament connecting it to the trapezium. 

Ques. 124. What is the structure of the radius ? 

Ans. It resembles that of the other long bones. 

Ques. 125. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is joined superiorly to the os humeri, laterally 
to both ends of the ulna, and inferiorly to the bones of the 
carpus. 



91 



Bones of the Hand. 

Ques. 126. How are the bones of the hand classed ? 
Ans. They are divided into the carpus, metacarpus, 
and phalanges. 



Carpus. 

Ques. 127. What is the situation of the carpus ? 

Ans. It forms the wrist and the base of the hand. 

Ques. 128. Of how many bones is it composed ? 

Ans. It consists of eight bones. 

Ques. 129. "What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is convex externally and concave internally, 
and is of an irregular quadrangular form. 

Ques. 130. How are the bones of the carpus arranged ? 

Ans. They are arranged in two rows ; an upper and a 
lower row ; four bones in each row. 

Ques. 131. What are the names of the carpal bones ? 

Ans. Those of the upper row are the os scaphoides, os 
lunare, os cuneiform, os pisiforme : those of the lower 
row are the os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum, 
and os unciforme. 

Ques. 132. What is the situation of the os scaphoides ? 

Ans. It is the first or most external bone of the first 
row. 

Ques. 133. What is the general form of the os sca- 
phoides ? 

Ans. Its superior side is convex ; its inferior side con- 
cave ; and the whole bone is oblong, bearing, as its name 
implies, some resemblance to a boat. 

Ques. 134. What is the situation of the os lunare ? 
Ans. The os lunare is the second bone of the first row. 



92 

Ques. 135. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is convex superiorly ; concave inferiorly. Its 
anterior and posterior surfaces are rough for the attach- 
ment of ligaments. 

Ques. 136. What is the situation of the os cunei- 
forme ? 

Ans. It is the third bone of the first row. 

Ques. 137. What is its general form ? 

Ans. Its upper surface is convex ; its anterior surface 
has upon it an orbicular plane for the os pisiforme ; it 
has also articular surfaces towards the os lunare and the 
os unciforme. 

Ques. 138. What is the situation of the os pisiforme ? 

Ans. It is the fourth bone of the first row placed upon 
the anterior side of the cuneiforme. 

Ques. 139. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is irregularly round. 

Ques. 140. What is the situation of the os trapezium ? 

Ans. It is the first or external bone of the second row. 

Ques. 141. What is the form of it? 

Ans. It is irregularly square ; its inner surface has 
upon it an oblong eminence for the carpal ligament, and 
a groove for the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis ; its 
upper side is hollow for articulation with the os scaphoi- 
des ; its lower side is connected with the first bone of the 
thumb ; its outer surface is rough ; and its inner side is 
connected superiorly with the os trapezoides ; and infe- 
riorly with the first bone of the metacarpus. 

Ques. 142. What is the situation and form of the os 
trapezoides ? 

Ans. It is the second bone of the second row ; it is 
joined superiorly to the os scaphoides ; inferioily to the 
base of the first metacarpal bone ; on its radial side to 
the os trapezium ; and on its ulna side to the os magnum. 

Ques. 143. What is the situation and form of the os 
magnum ? 



93 

Ans. It is the third bone of the second row ; its supe- 
rior side is round for connexion with the os scaphoides 
and os lunare ; inferiorly it is joined to the second meta- 
carpal bone ; on its radial side to the os trapezoides ; and 
on its ulna side to the os unciforme. 

Ques. 144. What is the situation of the os unciforme ? 

Ans. It is the fourth bone of the second row. 

Ques. 145. What is its general form ? 

Ans. Its anterior surface has upon it a hook-like pro- 
cess, from which the carpal ligament and some muscles 
of the little finger arise ; its posterior surface is rough for 
the attachment of ligaments ; its radial side is double, 
corresponding to the ulnar side of the os magnum ; its 
superior side corresponds to the inferior one of the os 
cuneiforme ; its inferior side is double for the last bones 
of the metacarpus. 

Ques. 146. What is the structure of the carpal bones ? 

Ans. The structure of these bones are spongy. 



Metacarpus. 

Ques. 147. What is the situation of the metacarpus ? 

Ans. The metacarpus is placed immediately below the 
carpus. 

Ques. 148. Of how many bones does the metacarpus 
consist ? 

Ans. It consists of four bones, one supporting each 
finger ; some anatomists reckon five, considering the first 
bone of the thumb as a metacarpal bone. 

Ques. 149. What is the general form of the metacar- 
pal bones ? 

Ans. They are long bones ; thicker at the extremities 
than at the middle. 

Ques. 150. Into what parts are they divided ? 

Ans. They may be divided into a basis, body, and head. 



94 

Ques. 151. What is the form of the basis of the meta- 
carpal bones ? 

Ans. They are narrow toward the palm, broader 
towards the back of the hand, and broadest on each side. 

Ques. 152. What is the form of their bodies ? 

Ans. They are contracted, of a triangular figure ; poste- 
riorly somewhat convex for the back of the hand, and 
anteriorly each has a sharp ridge. 

Ques. 153. What is the form of their heads? 

Ans. They are round eminences flattened on each side; 
their greatest convexity is turned towards the palm. 

Ques. 154. Which is the largest of the metacarpal 
bones ? 

Ans. The first, which supports the forefinger, is the 
longest. 

Ques. 155. What is their structure ? 

Ans. They resemble the long bones. 

Ques. 156. What are their connexions ? 

Ans. They are connected superiorly to the bones of 
the carpus ; laterally to each other by their bases ; and 
inferiorly to the first bones of the fingers. 



Bones of the Fingers. 

Ques. 157. How many bones compose the fingers ? 

Ans. Each finger is composed of three bones; there 
are fifteen in the whole, including those of the thumb. 

Ques. 158. How are the bones of the fingers named ? 

Ans. They are called phalanges ; those nearest the 
metacarpal bones are called the first, and those which 
form the ends of the fingers the third or last. 

Ques. 159. What is the form of the first bone of the 
thumb ? 

Ans. The first bone of the thumb considerably resem- 
bles the bones of the metacarpus ; its convex side is much 



95 

flattened, and is broadest towards the head, which re- 
sembles the metacarpal bones ; the articular surface of its 
base is a double ginglymus, allowing flexion and exten- 
sion, adduction and abduction, and corresponds to the 
lower side of the os trapezium. 

Ques. 160. What is the form of the second bone of 
the thumb ? 

Ans. It is shorter than the first, convex on one side, 
flat on the other, and contracted between the edges. 

Ques. 161. What is the form of the third bone of the 
thumb ? 

Ans. The base of the third bone of the thumb forms a 
ginglymus with the head of the second bone ; and has 
very near it, on each side, a small tuberosity : its head is 
small and flat, and ending in a rough semicircular edge. 

Ques. 162. What is the form of the first phalanges of 
the fingers ? 

Ans. They somewhat resemble the second bone of the 
thumb : but they are longer, flatter anteriorly, and 
rounder posteriorly. 

Ques. 163. What is the form of the second phalanges 
of the fingers ? 

Ans. They are shorter, narrower, and thinner than 
those of the first : their bases have a double cavity for a 
ginglymoid articulation. 

Ques. 164. What is the form of the third phalanges ? 

Ans. They exactly resemble that of the thumb, except 
that their size is proportioned to their respective fingers. 



96 



SECTION IX. 

OF THE BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. How are the bones of the lower extremities 
divided ? 

Ans. Each lower extremity is divided into the thigh., 
leg, and foot. 



Os Femoris. 

Ques. 2. What is the situation of the os femoris ? 
Ans. It is placed nearly in the same direction with the 
trunk, only bends somewhat inward. 
Ques. 3. Into what parts is it divided ? 
Ans. Into a body, a superior and inferior extremity. 
Ques. 4. What is the form of the head of the os fe- 



moris 



Ans. It resembles a large portion of a ball, supported 
by its long neck. 

Ques. 5. In what direction is the head of the os fe- 
moris placed ? 

Ans. It is turned obliquely inward and a little forward ; 
forming an angle with the body. 

Ques. 6. Where is the fossa of the head of this bone ? 

Ans. A little below its centre. 

Ques. 7. What is attached to the edge of this fossa? 

Ans. A strong ligament, called the ligamentum teres. 

Ques. 8. What is the situation of the neck of this 
bone ? 



97 

Ans. It is placed at the upper part of the bone. 
Ques. 9. What is the direction of its neck ? 
Ans. It is inclined upward and slightly forward, sup- 
porting the head. 

Ques. 10. Where is the capsular ligament inserted ? 
Ans. Around the root of the neck. 
Ques. 11. What is the name of the great tuberosities 
situated at the root of the neck of the os femoris ? 

Ans. The trochanter major is the name given to the 
greater tuberosity. 

Ques. 12. At what particular part of the base of the 
neck is the trochanter major situated ? 
Ans. It is situated at its outer side. 
Ques. 13. What covers the external convex surface 
of the trochanter major ? 

Ans. It is covered by the tendon of the gluteus max- 
imus. 

Ques. 14. What muscle is attached to the rough 
broad anterior muscular mark on the great trochanter 1 
Ans. The gluteus minimus ? 

Ques. 15. What is fixed to the posterior edge of the 
great trochanter ? 

Ans. The quadratus femoris. 

Ques. 16. What is attached to the sharp superior 
edge of the great trochanter ? 

Ans. The gluteus medius posteriorly ; and the pyri- 
formis, obturator internus, and gemini, anteriorly. 
Ques. 17. What is attached to its deep fossa ? 
Ans. The tendon of the obturator externus. 
Ques. 18. What is the form of the body of the os 
femoris ? 

Ans. It is cylindrical. 

Ques. 19. Where is the trochanter minor situated ? 
Ans. At the inner and posterior part of the root of the 
neck. 

Ques. 20. What is attached to the trochanter minor ? 
9 



98 

Ans. The iliacus internus and psoas muscles. 

Ques. 21. Where is the linea aspera ? 

Ans. It is the rough prominent line passing along the 
posterior part of the os femoris. 

Ques. 22. What muscle is fixed to the commence- 
ment of the linea aspera ? 

Ans. The gluteus maximus. 

Ques. 23. What muscles are attached to its middle ? 

Ans. The triceps is inserted into its middle, and the 
short head of the biceps arises from it. 

Ques. 24. How does the linea aspera terminate in- 
feriorly ? 

Ans. It divides into two ridges ; one of which passes 
externally and the other internally. 

Ques. 25. What is attached to the outer ridge ? 

Ans. The vastus externus. 

Ques. 26. What is attached to the inner ridge ? 

Ans. The vastus internus, and the aponeurosis of the 
great head of the triceps. 

Ques. 27. Over which of the ridges do the femoral 
vessels pass ? 

Ans. Over the internal one. 

Ques. 28. What is inserted into the tuberosity which 
terminates the inner ridge of the linea aspera ? 

Ans. The tendon of the great head of the triceps. 

Ques. 29. What is the situation and direction of the 
canal of the medullary artery ? 

Ans. It is placed about the middle of the linea aspera, 
and slants upwards. 

Ques. 30. What is the form of the lower extremity of 
the os femoris ? 

Ans. It is broad and thick ; formed by two large pro- 
tuberances projecting downward and backward. 

Ques. 31. What is the name of these protuber- 
ances ? 

Ans. The condyles of the os femoris, 



99 

Ques. 32. Which of the condyles projects most infe- 
riorly and posteriorly ? 

Ans. The inner condyle. 

Ques. 33. Which of the condyles projects most ante- 
riorly ? 

Ans. The outer condyle. 

Ques. 34. What is situated between the two condyles 
posteriorly ? 

Ans. A deep notch which separates them. 

Ques. 35. What is transmitted through this notch ? 

Ans. The vessels pass from the thigh through this 
notch. 

Ques. 36. What ligaments are attached to the inner 
side of this notch ? 

Ans. The crucial ligaments. 

Ques. 37. Where is the pulley of the os femoris si- 
tuated ? 

Ans. The junction of the condyles anteriorly forms a 
pulley-like surface on which the patella rests. 

Ques. 38. What are attached to the small tuberosities 
immediately above the back of the condyles ? 

Ans. The heads of the gastrocnemius. 

Ques. 39. What is the structure of the os femoris ? 

Ans. Its structure resembles that of the other long 
bones. 

Ques. 40. What are the connexions of the os femoris ? 

Ans. It is connected to the os innominatum superiorly, 
and to the tibia inferiorly. 



Bones of the Leg. 

Ques. 41. Of what bones does the leg consist ? 
Ans. It consists of three bones ; namely, the tibia, 
fibula, and patella. 



100 



Tibia. 



Ques. 42. How is the tibia situated ? 

Ans. It is placed on the inner side of the leg. 

Ques. 43. What is its general form ? 

Ans. Its circumference is irregularly triangular ; it is 
larger above than below. 

Ques. 44. How is it divided ? 

Ans. Into a body ; an upper and a lower extremity. 

Ques. 45. What is the form of the superior articular 
surfaces of this bone ? 

Ans. Its thick expanded superior extremity, which has 
been called its head, presents two broad articular surfaces ; 
one placed externally, the other internally, nearly hori- 
zontal and slightly hollowed. 

Ques. 46. What difference is there in the form of the 
supeiior articular surfaces of the tibia ? 

Ans. The internal one is somewhat oblong and de- 
pressed ; the external one is rounder. 

Ques. 47. What is attached to the tuberosity between 
the superior articular surfaces ? 

Ans. The crucial ligaments. 

Ques. 48. What is inserted into the tuberosity behind 
the inner part of the head of the tibia 1 

Ans. The semimembranosus muscle. 

Ques. 49. What is fixed to the tuberosity behind the 
outer part of the head of the tibia ? 

Ans. The head of the fibula. 

-Ques. 50. What is attached to the tuberosity on the 
fore part of this bone ? 

Ans. The ligament of the patella. 

Ques. 51. What is the form of the body of the tibia? 

Ans. It presents three distinct surfaces and edges 1 



101 

Ques. 52. What is attached to the inner edge of the 
tibia ? 

Ans. The interosseous ligament. 

Ques. 53. What is the situation and direction of the 
canal of the medullary artery ? 

Ans. It is situated somewhat above the middle of the 
posterior side of the bone, and slants downward. 

Ques. 54. What is the form of the lower part of the 
tibia ? 

Ans. It is much smaller than the upper part. 

Ques. 55. What is the use of the notch on the outside 
of the lower end of the tibia ? 

Ans. It is a longitudinal depression for the end of the 
fibula. 

Ques. 56. What is the name and use of the process 
on the inside of the lower end of the tibia ? 

Ans. It is called its malleolus internus, and gives 
attachment to a strong ligament. 

Ques. 57. How is the trochlea which receives the 
astragalus formed ? 

Ans. The lower end of the tibia and its malleolus in- 
ternus, together with the lower end of the fibula or mal- 
leolus externus, form a trochlea or pulley-like cavity, in 
which plays the first bone of the foot. 

Ques. 58. What are the connexions of the tibia ? 

Ans. It is joined superiorly to the os femoris and pa- 
tella ; laterally to the fibula, both above and below ; and 
inferiorly to the astragalus. 



Patella. 

Ques. 59. What is the situation of the patella ? 
Ans. It is situated directly above the anterior tuberosity 
of the tibia. 

Ques. 60. What is its general form 1 
9* 



102 

Ans. It is about half as thick as it is long ; but its 
length and breadth are nearly equal. 

Ques. 61. How is it divided ? 

Ans. Into a basis, an apex, and two sides. 

Ques. 62. What is inserted into the base of the pa- 
tella ? 

Ans. The base, which is turned upwards, gives attach- 
ment to the union of the vasti, rectus femoris, and 
cruralis. 

Ques. 63. What is fixed to its apex? 

Ans. The ligament of the patella. 

Ques. 64. What is the appearance of its inner or 
posterior side ? 

Ans. It is somewhat concave, and divided into two by 
a middle ridge. 

Ques. 65. Which of its depressions is the deepest ? 

Ans. The most external one. 

Ques. 66. What is the structure of this bone 1 

Ans. It is of a spongy structure. 

Ques. 67. What are its connexions ? 

Ans. It is connected to the anterior tuberosity of the 
tibia by a strong ligament, and is articulated with the 
pulley and condyles of the femur. 



Fibula. 

Ques. 68. What is the situation of the fibula ? 
Ans. It is placed on the outside of the leg. 
Ques. 69. What is its general form ? 
Ans. It is a long slender bone, having three surfaces 
and edges, which are contorted in their course. 
Ques. 70. How is it divided? 
Ans. Into a body ; an upper and a lower extremity. 
Ques. 71. What is the form of the head of the fibula ? 
Ans. It is obliquely flattened by a small articular plane 



103 

internally, and has upon its outer side a small tuber- 
osity. 

Ques. 72. What is fixed to this tuberosity ? 

Ans. The tendon of the biceps and the external lateral 
ligament. 

Ques. 73. With what is the articular surface of the 
head of the fibula articulated ? 

Ans. With a similar one on the tibia. 

Ques. 74. What is the form of the body of this bone ? 

Ans. The circumference of its body is irregularly tri- 
angular. 

Ques. 75. To what part of the body of the fibula is 
the interosseous ligament fixed? 

Ans. To the inner side. 

Ques, 76. What is the situation and direction of the 
canal of the medullary artery of this bone ? 

Ans. It is placed about the middle of the posterior side 
of the bone, and slants downwards. 

Ques. 77. What is the form of the lower end of the 
fibula ? 

Ans. It is broader, flatter, and more oblong than the 
upper. 

Ques. 78. What is attached to the inferior articular 
surface of the fibula ? 

Ans. The outer articular surface of the astragalus. 

Ques. 79. What is attached to the tuberosity of the 
lower end of the fibula ? 

Ans. A strong ligament. 

Ques. 80. What are the connexions of this bone ? 

Ans. It is connected laterally to the tibia both above 
and below, and inferiorly to the astragalus. 



104 



Bones of the Foot. 

Ques. 81. How are the bones of the foot divided? 
Ans. They are arranged under three classes ; namely, 
those of the tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. 



Tarsus. 

Ques. 82. What is the situation of the tarsus ? 

Ans. They form the posterior part of the foot. 

Ques. 83. Of what bones does the tarsus consist? 

Ans. It consists of seven bones ; namely, the astraga- 
lus ; os calcis ; os scaphoides ; os caboides ; and the 
three ossa cuneiformia— the internum, medium, and ex- 
ternum. 

Ques. 84. Which is the superior bone of the tarsus ? 

Ans. The astragalus, which, with the bones of the leg, 
forms the ankle joint. 

Ques. 85. What is the general form of the astragalus ? 

Ans. It is extremely irregular ; but may be divided 
into a body or posterior portion, and an apophysis or 
anterior portion. 

Ques. 86. What is the form of the superior articular 
surface of the astragalus ? 

Ans. It resembles a half pulley. 

Ques. 87. What is the appearance of its inferior sur- 
face ? 

Ans. It is divided into two articular facettes by a deep 
transverse groove. 

Ques. 88. With what do these articular surfaces 
connect ? 

Ans. They are united to corresponding ones on the os 
calcis. 



105 

Ques. 89. What is united to the anterior articular 
surface of this bone ? 

Ans. The os naviculare. 

Ques. 90. What is the situation of the os calcis ? 

Ans. It is placed at the posterior and inferior part of 
the tarsus, and forms the heel. 

Ques. 91. What is its shape ? 

Ans. It is of an irregular oblong form. 

Ques. 92. What is the appearance of its superior sur- 
face? 

Ans. It is divided by a groove, which separates two 
articular surfaces for its union with the astragalus. 

Ques. 93. What is its appearance posteriorly ? 

Ans. It is broad, unequally convex, and rough poste- 
riorly. 

Ques. 94. What is attached to its rough portion at its 
posterior end ? 

Ans. The tendo- Achilles. 

Ques. 95. What is its appearance on its lower sur- 
face ? 

Ans. It is narrow and rough. 

Ques. 96. What is the appearance of its anterior side ? 

Ans. It has a concave articular surface anteriorly. 

Ques. 97. What is attached to its anterior side ? 

Ans. The os cuboicles. 

Ques. 98. What is the appearance of the outer side 
of the os calcis ? 

Ans. It is very rough and broad. 

Ques. 99. What is the appearance of its inner side? 

Ans. It is concave. 

Ques. 100. What is lodged in this concavity? 

Ans. Several muscles and tendons, as well as many 
vessels and nerves going to the foot. 

Ques. 101. What is the situation of the os sca- 
phoides ? 

Ans. It is placed immediately before the astragalus ? 



106 

Ques. 102. What is its form ? 

Ans. As its name implies, it somewhat resembles a 
small boat ; and has an anterior and a posterior cartilagi- 
nous surface ; an oval circumference ; and an inferior 
tuberosity. 

Ques. 103. What is attached to its inferior concave 
side ? 

Ans. The head of the astragalus. 

Ques. 104. What is attached to its anterior convex 
side? 

Ans. The three ossa cuneiformia. 

Ques. 105. What is fixed to its tuberosity ? 

Ans. It gives attachment to a portion of the abductor 
pollicis and tibialis anticus. 

Ques. 106. What is the situation of the os cuboides ? 

Ans. It is situated before the os calcis on the outside 
of the os naviculare. 

Ques. 107. What is its form ? 

Ans. It has six irregular sides. 

Ques. 108. What is the appearance of its lower side ? 

Ans. Its inferior surface is rough, and before an oblique 
eminence there is a well marked groove. 

Ques. 109. What passes in this groove ? 

Ans. The tendons of the peroneus longus". 

Ques. 110. What is the appearance of its posterior 
side ? 

Ans. It is articular. 

Ques. 111. What is it united to on its anterior side ? 

Ans. The os calcis. 

Ques. 112. What is the appearance of its anterior 
side ? 

Ans. It is also articular, flat, and divided into two 
portions by a narrow faint line. 

Ques. 113. What is united to its anterior side ? 

Ans. The fourth and fifth bones of the metatarsus. 

Ques. 114. What is the appearance of its inner side ? 



107 

Ans. It has upon it a round cartilaginous surface, and 
the rest of it is rough. 

Ques. 115. What is attached to this cartilaginous 
surface ? 

Ans. The os cuneiforme externum. 

Ques. 116. What is the appearance of the outside of 
the os cuboides ? 

Ans. It is irregular, short, and narrow. 

Ques. 117. What is the appearance of its upper side? 

Ans. It is flat and rough for the attachment of liga- 
ments. 

Ques. 118. What is the situation of the ossa cunei- 
formia ? 

Ans. They are situated before the os scaphoides, and 
internal to the os cuboides. 

Ques. 119. What is the relative size of the ossa cu- 
neiformia ? 

Ans, The internal is the largest, and the external is the 
least. 

Ques. 120. Into what parts are they divided? 

Ans. Each cuneiforme bone has a base superiorly ; an 
apex inferiorly ; and a posterior, an anterior, an external, 
and an internal side. 

Ques. 121. What is the form of the os cuneiforme 
internus ? 

Ans. It somewhat resembles a wedge contorted and 
bent, and has its base turned downward. 

Ques. 122. What is the form of the os cuneiforme 
medium ? 

Ans. It more resembles a wedge, and has its base 
turned upward. 

Ques. 123. What is the form of the os cuneiforme 
externum ? 

Ans. It also resembles a wedge, and has its base turned 
upward. 



108 



Metatarsus. 

Ques. 124. What is the situation of the metatarsus ? 

Ans. The metatarsus forms the middle part of the foot. 

Ques. 125. Of how many bones does the metatarsus 
consist ? 

Ans. Of five bones ; one supporting each toe. 

Ques. 126. What is the general form of the bones of 
the metatarsus 1 

Ans. They are longer and more slender than the meta- 
carpal bones. 

Ques. 127. Into what parts are they divided? 

Ans. They may be divided into a body, basis, and 
head. 

Ques. 128. What is the form of their bases ? 

Ans. They resemble a wedge whose edges are turned 
downward. 

Ques. 129. What is the form of their bodies 1 

Ans. Their bodies are long and slender and flattened 
on each side. 

Ques. 130. What is the form of their heads ? 

Ans. Their heads or anterior extremities are convex 
and smooth, much flattened laterally, and are joined to 
the toes. 

Ques. 131. Which is the largest of the metatarsal 
bones ? 

Ans. The first one. 

Ques. 132. What is peculiar to the fifth metatarsal 
bone ? 

Ans. It is distinguished by a rough projection from its 
base, to which is attached the peroneus brevis. 

Ques. 133. What are the connexions of the metatarsal 
bones ? 

Ans. They are joined to the tarsus, and to each other 



109 

posteriorly, and to the first phalanges of the toes ante- 
riorly. 



Bones of the Toes. 

Ques. 134. What is the number of the bones of the 
toes? 

Ans. The five toes are formed by fourteen bones ; 
three belonging to each of the four lesser toes, and two 
to the great toe. 

Ques. 135. How are they arranged? 

Ans. They are arranged precisely as the fingers. 

Ques. 136. What is the form of the first bone of the 
great toe ? 

Ans. It somewhat resembles the second bone of the 
thumb ; its base is considerably hollow, and its head re- 
sembles a pulley. 

Ques. 137. "What is the form of the second bone of 
the great toe ? 

Ans. It resembles the last of the thumb, but is much 
larger, and its anterior edges more unequal. 

Ques. 138. What is the form of the first bones of the 
other toes ? 

Ans. The first bones of the other toes are the largest, 
but are shorter, narrower, and more convex than those of 
the fingers. 

Ques. 139. What is the form of the second bones of 
the toes ? 

Ans. They are very short, and almost of the same ob- 
long form. 

Ques. 140. What is the form of the third bones of 
the toes ? 

Ans. They nearly resemble those of the fingers. 

Ques. 141. What is the form and situation of the ses- 
amoid bones ? 

10 



110 



Ans. They are small oval bones, chiefly found under 
the first joint of the great toe. 



SECTION X. 



FEMALE SKELETON. 



Ques. 1. How do the bones of the female differ from 
those of the male ? 

Ans. They are smaller and less strongly marked than 
those of the male. All muscular attachments, depres- 
sions, and protuberances are smaller. 

Ques. 2. Whether is the skull of the female, or that 
of the male proportionally largest ? 

Ans. The skull of the female is said to be larger, 
though more delicate. 

Ques. 3. How does the os frontis differ from that of 
the male ? 

Ans. The sinuses are less capacious, and it is more 
frequently divided by a suture down the middle. 

Ques. 4. How do the clavicles differ from those of 
the male ? 

Ans. They are straighter. 

Ques. 5. How does the sternum differ? 

Ans. It is shorter, and more elevated below. 

Ques. 6. How do the cartilages of the true ribs differ? 



Ill 

Ans. They are larger, broader, and flatter, to support 
the mammae. 

Ques. 7. What is the difference in the vertebrae? 

Ans. The bodies of the vertebrae are deeper. 

Ques. 8. What is the difference in the os sacrum ? 

Ans. It is broader and set more backward. 

Ques. 9. What is the difference in the os coccygis ? 

Ans. It is more moveable. 

Ques. 10. How do the ossa ilii differ from those of 
the male ? 

Ans. They are broader, and turned outwards. 

Ques. 11. How does the arch of the pubis and the 
ischiatic notch differ from these parts in the male sub- 
ject? 

Ans. They are larger. 

Ques. 12. What is the difference in the tuberosities 
of the ischia of the female ? 

Ans. They are more distant and flatter. 

Ques. 13. How do the ossa femorum differ? 

Ans. They are more distant, and the angle of the neck 
with the body of the bone is greater. 

Ques. 14. What parts of the female skeleton offer 
the most striking differences from that of the male ? 

Ans. The pelvis shows the most distinct characters of 
difference between the male and female skeleton. In the 
female, though the bones of the pelvis are less massy and 
rough, the cavity they form is more capacious ; the ilia 
more expanded ; the brim more rough, and of an oval 
form, its greatest diameter being from side to side ; the 
outlet more expanded ; the arch of the pubis greater ; and 
the tuberosities of the ischia more distant from each 
other. 



112 



CHONDROLOGY. 



SECTION XL 



OF CARTILAGES. 

Ques. 1. What are cartilages? 

Ans. They are white, elastic, smooth, and very com- 
pact substances ; in density next to bone. 

Ques. 2. How many kinds of cartilages are there ? 

Ans. There are four kinds: 1st, diarthrodial ; 2d, sy- 
narthrodia! ; 3d, interarticular ; and, 4th, cartilages which 
through life supply the place of bone. 

Ques. 3. What are diarthrodial cartilages ? 

Ans. They cover the ends of bones forming moveable 
joints. 

Ques. 4. What, are their use ? 

Ans. They afford a highly polished surface, favourable 
to the motions of the joint ; and their elasticity renders 
violent movements less dangerous. 

Ques. 5. What are synarthrodial cartilages? 

Ans. They are placed between several bones, having 
no perceptible motions on each other, as the bones of the 
pubis, &c. 

Ques. 6. What are their use ? 

Ans. They answer the purpose of a bond of union, and 
also prevent the ill effects of shocks from sudden and 
violent motions. 



113 

Ques. 7. What are interarticular cartilages ? 

Ans. They are placed in some joints between bones ; 
as in the joint of the lower jaw, the clavicle with the 
sternum, and the knee joint. 

Ques. 8. What is their use ? 

Ans. They prevent the ill effects of friction, enlarge 
the articular cavity, and extend the mobility of the joint. 

Ques. 9. In what parts does cartilage supply the place 
of bone ? 

Ans. In the nose, the larynx, trachea, and part of the 
chest. 



10< 



114 



SYNDESMOLOGY. 



SECTION XII. 



OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE HEAD AND TRUNK. 

Ques. 1. What are ligaments ? 

Ans. They are strong, flexible substances, usually 
connecting those bones together, which form moveable 
joints. 

Ques. 2. How many kinds of ligaments are there ? 

Ans. There are two kinds ; 1st, the capsular; 2d, the 
connecting ligaments. 

Ques. 3. What are capsular ligaments ? 

Ans. They surround the joints on all sides. 

Ques. 4. What is the use of capsular ligaments ? 

Ans. They form bags which retain, and probably se- 
crete the synovia, whilst they contribute to the union of 
the bones. 

Ques. 5. What are connecting ligaments ? 

Ans. They are usually of a firmer and more fibrous 
texture than the capsular. 

Ques. 6. What are their use ? 

Ans. They strengthen considerably the union of bones ? 

Ques. 7. What names are usually given to the connect- 
ing ligaments ? 

Ans. They are called lateral, crucial, round, &c, ac- 
cording to their situations or form. 



115 

Ques. 8. What other kinds of ligamentous substances 
are there ? 

Ans. There are some answering the purposes of bones, 
others strengthening the union of bones, not moving on 
each other ; these two kinds may be found about the 
pelvis. A third kind are the elastic ligaments ; they 
exist about the vertebrae, in some animals they are very 
common ; of this nature is the ligamentum nuchas in the 
neck of grazing animals. 

Ques. 9. What are the ligaments of the lower jaw ? 
Ans. There are two on each side ; a capsular and a 
lateral ligament. 

Ques. 10. What is the situation of the capsular liga- 
ment of the lower jaw ? 

Ans. It arises around the articular surface of the squa- 
mous portion of the temporal bone ; and, inclosing in its 
passage downward an inarticular cartilage, it is fixed 
round the condyloid process of the lower jaw. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the lateral liga- 
ment of the lower jaw ? 

Ans. It arises from the root of the styloid process of 
the temporal bone, and is inserted into the inside of the 
angle of the lower jaw. 

Ques. 12. What are the ligaments of the vertebrae in 
general ? 

Ans. For the union of the vertebrae there are seven 
kinds of ligaments ; namely, the common anterior liga- 
ment, common posterior, crucial or intervertebral, the 
capsules of the oblique processes, intertransverse, sub- 
flava, and interspinous. 

Ques. 13. What is the situation of the common ante- 
rior ligament of the vertebrae ? 

Ans. It arises from the forepart of the first vertebrae, 
and covers the anterior part of the whole spinal column 
as far down as the os sacrum. 



116 

Ques. 14. What is the situation of the common pos- 
terior ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the foramen 
magnum, and covers the posterior part of the bodies of 
the vertebras to the termination of the os sacrum. 

Ques. 15. Where are the crucial or intervertebral 
ligaments ? 

Ans. They cross each other obliquely from the edge 
of one vertebrae to that of another. 

Ques. 16. Where are the capsules of the oblique pro- 
cesses ? 

Ans. They arise from the edge of one oblique process, 
and surround that of another. 

Ques. 17. What is the situation of the intertransverse 
ligaments ? 

Ans. They pass between the transverse processes of 
the vertebras. 

Ques. 18. Where is the ligamenta subflava ? 

Ans, It connects the bony arches of the vertebras. 

Ques. 19. Where is the interspinous ligaments? 

Ans. They connect the spinous processes of the ver- 
tebras. 

Ques. 20. What are the ligaments peculiar to the cer- 
vical vertebras ? 

. Ans. They are the ligamentum nuchas common to all 
the vertebrae of the neck, and the transverse ligament 
belonging to the two first. 

Ques. 21. What is the situation of the ligamentum 
nuchas ? 

Ans. It arises from the spine of the occipj jjU and is 
attached to the spinous processes of all the cervical ver- 
tebras. 

Ques. 22. What is the situation of the transverse 
ligament of the atlas ? 

Ans. It is attached to a small tuberosity, on each side 
of the articular depression behind the anterior arch of the 



117 

atlas, and encloses the tooth-like process of the dentatus. 
It sends one process up to the occiput and another down 
to the inferior vertebrae. 

Ques. 23. What are the ligaments from the first verte- 
brae to the occiput? 

Ans. They are four in number ; being those of the ante- 
rior and posterior arches of the atlas and the capsular liga- 
ments for the condyles. 

Ques. 24. What are the ligaments from the second 
vertebrae to the occiput? 

Ans. They are three in number; namely, one perpen- 
dicular, and two lateral. 

Ques. 25. What is the situation of the perpendicular 
ligament? 

Ans. It arises from the tip of the tooth-like process of 
the second vertebra, and is inserted into the edge of the 
foramen magnum between the condyles. 

Ques. 26. What is the situation of the lateral liga- 
ments ? 

Ans. They arise from each side of the processus den- 
tatus, and are inserted into the occiput before the condyles, 
and also into the inside of the atlas. 

Ques. 27. What are the ligaments connecting the ribs 
and vertebrae ? 

Ans. They are of six kinds ; viz., the capsular of the 
heads of the ribs ; the capsular of the tubercles of the ribs ; 
the external ligaments of the necks of the ribs ; the inter- 
nal ligaments of the necks of the ribs ; the external 
transverse ligaments ; and the internal transverse liga- 
ments. 

Ques. 28. Where are the capsules of the heads of the 
ribs ? 

Ans. They surround the junction of the ribs with the 
bodies of the vertebrae. 

Ques. 29. What is the situation of the capsules of the 
tubercles of the ribs ? 



118 



Ans. They surround the junction of the ribs with the 
transverse processes of the vertebrae. 

Ques. 30. Where are the external ligaments of the 
neck of the ribs ? 

Ans. They arise from the roots of the oblique processes, 
and are inserted into the necks of the ribs. 

Ques. 31. What is the situation of the internal liga- 
ments ? 

Ans. They arise from the lower edges of the transverse 
processes, and are inserted into the internal part of the 
necks of the ribs. 

Ques. 32. Where is the external transverse ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse process, and is in- 
serted into the angle of each rib. 

Ques. 33. Where is the internal transverse ligament? 

Ans. It arises from the body of each vertebra, and is 
inserted anteriorly a little beyond the head of each rib. 

Ques. 34. What are the ligaments connecting the ribs 
to each other? 

Ans. They are called coruscating ligaments, and pass 
between their cartilages. 

Ques. 35. What are the ligaments connecting the ribs 
and sternum ? 

Ans. They are of two kinds; capsular and transverse. 

Ques. 36. What is the situation of the capsules of the 
anterior ends of the ribs ? . 

Ans. They connect the ribs to the depressions of the 
sternum. 

Ques. 37. What is the situation of the external and 
internal transverse ligaments ? 

Ans. They externally and internally connect the carti- 
lages of the ribs to the sternum. 

Ques. 38. What are the proper ligaments of the ster- 
num ? 

Ans. There are two ; viz., the common membrane of 
the sternum, and the ligaments of the Xiphoid cartilage. 



119 

Ques. 39. What are the ligaments of the pelvis ? 

Ans. Anteriorly there are three, viz., Poupart's liga- 
ment, the annular ligament, and the obturator ligament ; 
posteriorly there are five, viz., transverse, the ilio-sacral, 
the ligamentum vaga, the short ischiatic, and the long 
ischiatic ligament. 

Ques. 40. What is the situation of Poupart's liga- 
ment? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior superior spinous pro- 
cess of the ilium, and is inserted into the angle of the pu- 
bis. Some of its .fibres are inserted into the pubis before 
it reaches the angle ; and it is these which are to be divided 
in Gimbernat's operation for female hernia. 

Ques. 41. What is the situation of the annular liga- 
ment? 

Ans. It surrounds the articulation of the ossa pubis. 

Ques. 42. Where is the obturator ligament ? 

Ans. It closes up the foramen thyroideum, leaving only 
a small notch at its superior part. 

Ques. 43. What is the situation of the transverse liga- 
ment? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the fourth 
and fifth lumbar vertebrae, and is inserted into the poste- 
rior superior spinous process of the ilium. 

Ques. 44. What is the situation of the ilio-sacral liga- 
ment? 

Ans. It arises from the superior posterior spine of the 
ilium, and is inserted into the back of the sacrum. 

Ques. 45. Where is the ligamenta vaga ? 

Ans. The ligamenta vaga are numerous small ligaments 
which pass from the ilium to the sacrum anteriorly and 
posteriorly. 

Ques. 46. What is the situation of the short sacro- 
ischiatic ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the spine of the ischium, and is in- 



120 



serted into the posterior part of the transverse process of 
the sacrum. 

Ques. 47. What is the situation of the long sacro- 
ischiatic ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the internal edge of the tuberosity 
of the ischium, and is inserted along with the short one. 

Ques. 48. What are the ligaments of the os coccygis ? 

Ans. They are four in number; viz., a capsular, an 
anterior, a posterior, and a lateral ligament. 



SECTION XIII. 

OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 

Ques. 1. What are the ligaments of the sternal extre- 
mity of the clavicle ? 

Ans. There are three connecting the clavicle to the 
sternum ; namely, the capsular, the interclavicular, and 
the rhomboid ligaments. 

Ques. 2. What is the situation of the capsular liga- 
ment ? 

Ans. It arises around the depression of the sternum, 
and involving an interarticular cartilage is inserted around 
the end of the clavicle. 

Ques. 3. Where is the interclavicular ligament ? 



121 

Ans. It passes behind the sternum, from the end of one 
clavicle to that of the other. 

Ques. 4. Where is the rhomboid ligament ? 

Ans. The rhomboid, or, as it has sometimes been 
called, the costo-clavicular ligament, connects the first rib 
and clavicle near the sternum. 

Ques. 5. What are the ligaments connecting the cla- 
vicle and scapula ? 

Ans. They are three in number, viz., the capsular, the 
conoid, and the trapezoid. 

Ques. 6. What is the situation of the capsular liga- 
ment? 

Ans. It arises around the sternal end of the clavicle, and 
is fixed round the articular surface of the acromion. 

Ques. 7. Where is the conoid ligament ? 

Ans. The conoid or coraco-clavicular ligament arises 
pointed from the root of the coracoid process, and is in- 
serted into the inferior side of this end of the clavicle. 

Ques. 8. Describe the situation of the trapezoid liga- 
ment. 

Ans. It differs in form from the last, but has nearly the 
same origin and insertion. 

Ques. 9. What are the ligaments proper to the scapula ? 

Ans. There are two ; the anterior and posterior. 

Ques. 10. Describe the anterior. 
' Ans. It arises from the upper edge of the acromion, 
and is inserted into that of the coracoid process ; it is 
also called coraco-acromial ligament. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the proper poste- 
rior ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the root of the coracoid process, 
and passes over the notch to the superior costa of the 
bone. 

Ques. 12. What are the ligaments connecting the sca- 
pula and humerus ? 

11 



122 



Ans. They are two in number, viz. : the capsular and 
the upper part of the tendon of the biceps. 

Ques. .13. Describe the capsular ligament. 

Ans. It arises from the margin of the glenoid cavity, 
and is inserted round the neck of the humerus. 

Ques. 14. What is the situation of the tendon of the 
biceps muscle ? 

Ans. It arises from the upper edge of the glenoid ca- 
vity, passes through the joint, and being fixed in its 
groove by a strong sheath, it contributes to strenghten the 
shoulder joint. 

Ques. 15. What are the ligaments proper to the hu- 



merus 



Ans. They are two in number, viz. : the external and 
internal intermuscular. 

Ques. 16. Describe the external intermuscular liga- 
ment. 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle, and is in- 
serted into the middle of the outside of the bone. 

Ques. 17. What is the situation of the internal inter- 
muscular ? 

Ans. It arises from the internal condyle, and is inserted 
into the middle of the inside of the bone. 

Ques. 18. What are the ligaments connecting the hu- 
merus to the radius and ulna ? 

Ans. There are three, viz. : the capsular, and the ex- 
ternal and internal lateral. 

Ques. 19. What is the situation of the capsular liga- 
ment ? 

Ans. It arises round the trochlea of the humerus, and 
is inserted around the heads of the radius and ulna. 

Ques. 20. Describe the external lateral ligament. 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- 
rus, and is inserted into the outside of the neck of the 
radius. 

Ques. 21. Where is the internal lateral ligament ? 



123 

Ans. It arises from the internal condyle, and is inserted 
into the inner side of the coronoid process of the ulna ? 

Ques. 22. What are the ligaments connecting the ra- 
dius and ulna ? 

Ans. They are four in number, namely, the coronary, 
the oblique, the interosseous, and the sacciforme. 

Ques. 23. Describe the coronary ligament. 

Ans. It arises from the ulna, and surrounds the head of 
the radius. 

Ques. 24. Where is the oblique ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the base of the coronoid process of 
the ulna, and is inserted into the tubercles of the radius. 

Ques. 25. What is the situation of the interosseous 
ligament ? 

Ans. It is attached to the acute edges of these bones, 
turned towards each other. 

Ques. 26. Describe the situation of the sacciforme li- 
gament ? 

Ans. It unites in a distinct articulation the lower ends 
of the radius and ulna. 

Ques. 27. What are the ligaments from the radius and 
ulna to the carpus 1 

Ans. They are three in number, viz., the capsular, the 
external, and the internal lateral ; between the end of the 
ulna and the os naviculare, a triangular, interarticular car- 
tilage is placed. 

Ques. 28. Describe the capsular ligament. 

Ans. It arises around the lower articular surfaces of the 
radius and ulna, and is inserted round the three first bones 
of the carpus. 

Ques. 29. Where is the external lateral ligament? 

Ans. It arises from the styloid process of the radius, 
and is inserted into the outside of the os scaphoides. 

Ques. 30. What is the situation of the internal lateral 
ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the styloid process of the ulna, and 



124 



is inserted into the outside of the os cuneiforme and os 
unciforme. 

Ques. 31. What are the ligaments of the carpus? 

Ans. They are of five kinds, viz., the capsular, the 
transverse, the posterior annular, and the vaginal. 

Ques. 32. Describe the capsular ligament. 

Ans. It surrounds and connects all the carpal bones. 

Ques. 33. What is the situation of the transverse? 

Ans. It passes from bone to bone, and ties them to- 
gether. 

Ques. 34. Describe the posterior annular ligament. 

Ans. It binds down the tendons of the extensor muscles 
to the back of the carpus. 

Ques. 35. Where is the anterior annular? 

Ans. It arises from the os pisiforme, and os unciforme, 
and is inserted into the trapezium, under which pass the 
flexor tendons. 

Ques. 36. Describe the vaginal ligaments. 

Ans. They proceed from within the anterior annular 
and sheathe the flexor tendons. 

Ques. 37. What are the ligaments of the bases of the 
metacarpal bones ? 

Ans. They are of four kinds, viz. the capsular, the late- 
ral, the dorsal, and the palmar. 

Ques. 38. Describe the capsular ligaments. 

Ans. They are derived from that of the carpus, which 
includes the bases of these bones. 

Ques. 39. Where are the lateral ligaments? 

Ans. They are situated on each side of the articula- 
tions. 

Ques. 40. Describe the dorsal ligaments. 

Ans. They are transverse ligaments, connecting the 
bases of these bones, on the back of the hands. 

Ques. 41. What is the situation of the palmar liga- 
ments ? 



125 

Ans. They connect the bases of the metacarpal bones 
In the palm. 

Ques. 42. What are the ligaments of the heads of the 
metacarpal bones 2 

Ans. They are of three kinds, viz., the capsular, late- 
ral, and transverse. 

Ques. 43. What are the ligaments of the joints of the 
lingers ? 

Ans. They are at each joint capsular and lateral. 



SECTION XIV. 



OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 

Ques. 1. What are the ligaments connecting the os 
innominatum and the femur ? 

Ans, There are two, viz., a capsular and a round liga- 
ment. 

Ques. 2. What is the situation of the capsular liga- 
ment ? 

Ans. It arises from the margin of the acetabulum, and 
is inserted around the root of the neck of the femur, a 
reflected layer of this ligament passes up the neck to the 
edges of the head of the bone, and transverse ligaments 
connect the one layer with the other. 

Ques. 3. Describe the round ligament. 
11* 



126 

Ans. It arises from the small depression of the head of 
the femur, and is inserted into the middle of the acetabu- 
lum. 

Ques. 4. What are the ligaments which connect the 
femur with the tibia and fibula ? 

Ans. There are six ligaments connecting these bones, 
viz., the capsular, popliteal, internal lateral, external late- 
ral, anterior crucial, and posterior crucial. 

Ques. 5. Describe the capsular ligament. 

Ans. It passes from the edges of the articular surface of 
the femur to those of the tibia, being attached also to the 
patella. 

Ques. 6. Where is the popliteal ligament? 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the femur, 
and, passing in the posterior part of the capsule, is ex- 
panded upon the internal side of the joint. 

Ques. 7. What is the situation of the external lateral 
ligament ? 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle, and is inserted 
into the head of the fibula. It generally divides itself into 
two portions. 

Ques. 8. Describe the internal lateral ligament. 

Ans. It arises from the internal condyle, and is inserted 
into the inside of the head of the tibia. 

Ques. 9. Where is the posterior crucial ? 

Ans. It arises from the inside of the notch, between the 
condyles of the femur, and is inserted into the posterior 
part of the rough ridge on the top of tibia. 

Que,s. 10. Describe the anterior crucial. 

Ans. It arises from the outside of the notch, between 
the condyles of the femur, and is inserted into the middle 
of the ridge on the top of the tibia. 

Ques. 11. What are the ligaments of the patella ? 

Ans. They are of two kinds ; the anterior ligament and 
the alar ligament. 

Ques. 12. Describe the anterior ligament. 



127 

Ans. It arises from the inferior point of the patella, and 
is inserted into the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. 

Ques. 13. Where are the alar ligaments? 

Ans. They proceed on each side from the inner side 
of the capsular, and are inserted into the sides of the pa- 
tella. 

Ques. 14. What are the ligaments connecting the tibia 
and fibula ? 

Ans. There are three, namely, the capsular, the inter- 
osseous, and the transverse. 

Ques, 15. What is the situation of the capsular liga- 
ment ? 

Ans. It connects the upper extremities of the tibia and 
fibula. 

Ques. 16. Describe the interosseous ligament. 

Ans. It connects the outer edge of the tibia to a ridge 
on the inner side of the fibula. 

Ques. 17. Where are the transverse ligaments ? 

Ans. They connect the lower end of the fibula to that 
of the tibia, anteriorly and posteriorly. 

Ques. 18. What are the ligaments connecting the tibia 
and fibula to the tarsus ? 

Ans. They are five in number, viz., the capsular, the 
deltoid, and the anterior, middle, and posterior ligaments 
of the fibula. 

Ques. 19. Describe the capsular ligament. 

Ans. It surrounds the junction of the tibia and fibula 
with the astragalus. 

Ques. 20. Where is the deltoid ligament? 

Ans. It arises from the internal malleolus, and is in- 
serted into the astragalus and naviculare. 

Ques. 21. What is the situation of the anterior liga- 
ment ? 

Ans. It arises from the external malleolus, and is in- 
serted into the outside of the astragalus. 

Ques. 22. Where is the middle ligament ? 



128 



Ans. It arises from the tip of the external malleolus, 
and is inserted into the outside of the os calcis. 

Ques. 23. Describe the posterior ligament. 

Ans. It arises from the back part of the external malle- 
olus, and is inserted into the back part of the astragalus. 

Ques. 24. What are the ligaments of the tarsus? 

Ans. They are of three kinds, namely, the capsular, 
the transverse, the plantar, and a ligament at the intersal 
side of the foot. 

Ques. 25. What is the office of the capsular ligament ? 

Ans. It includes all the tarsal and the heads of the me- 
tatarsal bones. 

Ques. 26. What is the use of the transverse ligaments ? 

Ans. They pass from one to another, and tie the indi- 
vidual bones together. 

Ques. 27. Where is the plantar ligament situated? 

Ans. On the outside of the sole of the foot. 

Ques. 28. Where is the internal ligament? 

Ans. It passes from the lower part of the os calcis to 
the lower part of the os naviculare, supporting the astra- 
galus. 

Ques. 29. What are the ligaments of the bases of the 
metatarsal bones. 

Ans. They are of four kinds, namely, the capsular, the 
lateral, the dorsal, and the plantar. 

Ques. 30. What are the capsular ligaments derived 
from ? 

Ans. From that of the tarsus, which includes the bases 
of these bones. 

Ques. 31. Where are the lateral ligaments situated? 

Ans. On each side of the articulations. 

Ques. 32. Where are the dorsal ligaments? 

Ans. They are transverse ligaments connecting these 
bones on the back of the foot. 

Ques. 33. What is the situation of the plantar liga- 
ment ? 



129 

Ans. It connects the metatarsal bones in the sole of the 
foot. 

Ques. 34. What are the ligaments of the head of the 
metatarsal bones ? 

Ans. They of three kinds, namely, the capsular, the 
lateral, and the transverse. 

Ques. 35. What are the ligaments of the joints of the 
toes ? 

Ans. They are capsular and lateral. 

Ques. 36. How are the tendons of the foot and toes 
kept in their situations ? 

Ans. The tendons passing over the instep and behind 
the ancles are confined in their situations by ligamentous 
bands. 



130 



MYOLOGY. 



Ques. 1. What are the muscles? 

Ans. They are fleshy bodies, composed of bundles of 
parallel contractile fibres, with tendinous extremities. 

Ques. 2. What is their general appearance ? 

Ans. The middle portion of them is generally their 
principal part. It is of a red colour, softer and thicker 
than the other parts, and is alone capable of contraction. 

Ques. 3. What general names do muscles derive from 
the arrangement of their fibres ? 

Ans. If the fibres run longitudinally the muscle is 
termed simple ; if they diverge from a tendinous centre 
they are named radiated ; and when they have a feathery 
arrangement upon their tendons, they are called penni- 
form ; several of these united, are called complex penni- 
form, &c. 

Ques. 4. Whence are the particular names of the mus- 
cles in general derived ? 

Ans. They generally derive their names, either from 
their use as levators or depressors ; from their form, as tra- 
pezius, rhomboideus, &c; from their situation, as occi- 
pito-frontalis, pectoralis, <fcc; or from their points of 
attachment, as sterno-costalis, sterno-cleido, mastoideus, 
&c. 

Ques. 5. What are the tendons ? 

Ans. They are generally placed at the extremities of 
muscles, and are of a silvery hue, firm, compact, and in- 
capable of contraction. 



131 

Ques. 6. What is called the origin of a muscle ? 
Ans. The least movable point of attachment is called 
the origin. 

Ques. 7. What is called the insertion of a muscle? 
Ans. Its most movable point of attachment. 



SECTION XV. 



OF THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. 

Ques. 1. What muscles arise from the trunk, and are 
inserted into it and the linea alba. 

Ans. Five muscles arise from the trunk, and are in- 
serted into it and the linea alba; viz., the obliquus exter- 
nus abdominis descendens, the obliquus internus abdomi- 
nis ascendens, the transversalis abdominis, the rectus 
abdominis, and the pyramidalis. 

Ques. 2. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
obliquus externus abdominis descendens ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior edges of the eight lower 
ribs, near their sternal ends, by an equal number of ser- 
rated digitations, which intermix with the digitations of 
the serratus anticus ; posteriorly it is covered where it 
passes from the last rib to the crista ilii by the latissimus 
dorsi, to which it adheres ; and superiorly it is connected 



132 

to the pectoralis major and intercostals ; running down- 
ward and forward, it is inserted by a thin and broad ten- 
don into a white line composed of tendons of the abdomi- 
nal muscles called linea alba, extending from the last bone 
of the sternum to the pubis ; but before this tendon reaches 
the rectus abdominis, it unites with the tendons of the 
obliquus internus and transversalis, and forms another 
white line called linea semi-lunaris ; this muscle is also 
inserted into the middle of the crista ilii, and into Pou- 
part's ligament, extending from its anterior spine to the 
angle of the pubis, and transmits over this ligament a 
fascia to the thigh ; the lower part of its tendon, near the 
pubis, divides to form the abdominal ring for the sperma- 
tic cord in males ; its use is to bend the body, or to raise 
the pelvis, and by compressing the abdomen to assist in 
respiration, in evacuating the feces, urine, and foetus, &c. 

Ques. 3. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
obliquus internus abdominis ascendens ? 

Ans. It arises from Poupart's ligament, about the mid- 
dle of which it sends off the cremaster ; from all the crista 
ilii, and by a common tendon, with the serratus posticus 
inferior, from the spines of the thiee lower lumbar verte- 
brae, and from the os sacrum ; it is inserted into the last 
bone of the sternum, into the cartilage of the last true and 
those of all the false ribs, into all the linea alba, and into 
the anterior part of the pubis ; it divides into two layers, 
the anterior passing before the posterior, except at its 
lower part, behind the rectus abdominis to the linea alba ; 
its use is to assist the external oblique, and to bend the 
body in an opposite diiection. 

Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
transversalis abdominis ? 

Ans. It arises internally from the cartilages of the seven 
lower ribs, being there connected with the intercostals 
and diaphragm ; also from the transverse process of the 
last vertebra of the back, from those of the four upper ver- 



133 

tebrae of the loins, from the inner edge of the crista ilii, and 
from part of Poupart's ligament ; it is inserted into the 
inferior bone of the sternum, and almost all the length of 
the linea alba; its use is to compress the abdomen. 

Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
rectus abdominis? 

Ans. It arises from each side of the symphysis pubis ; 
as it passes up, it has four tendinous intersections, and is 
sheathed by the tendons of the oblique and transverse 
muscles, joining fibres of the pectoral; it is inserted into 
the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs ; its use 
is to depress the trunk, or to elevate tho pelvis, and to 
compress the abdomen. 

Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
pyramidalis ? 

Ans. It arises between the origin of the recti from the 
symphysis pubis ; it is inserted about one-fourth up the 
linea alba, into it and the inner edge of the recti ; its use 
is to assist the recti. 

Ques. 7. What muscles arise from the ribs and verte- 
brae and terminate in a central tendon. 

Ans. The greater and lesser muscles of the diaphragm. 

Ques. 8. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
greater muscle of the diaphragm ? 

Ans. It arises from the cartilages of all the false and of 
the last true rib, also from the last bone of the sternum; 
it forms a septum between the thorax and abdomen, which 
is concave inferiorly ; it is inserted into a central tendon, 
towards the right side of which is a triangular foramen for 
the vena cava inferior ; to its upper part the pericardium and 
mediastinum are attached ; its use is to act in respiration, 
and to expel the feces and urine, and the foetus in partu- 
rition. 

Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
lesser muscle of the diaphragm ? 

12 



134 

Ans. It arises by eight slips from the second, third, and 
fourth lumbar vertebras, which unite to form its crura ; 
and between these pass the aorta and thoracic duct, on 
their outside the great sympathetic nerve, and some 
branches of the vena azygos ; and about the middle of the 
fleshy belly of this muscle the oesophagus and eighth pair 
of nerves pass through a considerable foramen, called the 
left one, to distinguish it from that situated toward the 
right of its tendinous centre ; it is inserted into the middle 
tendon posteriorly : its use is to assist the greater muscle. 

Ques. 10. What muscle arises from the pelvis and 
vertebras and is inserted into the ribs and vertebras ? 

Ans. The longissimus dorsi. 

Ques. 11. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
longissimus dorsi? 

Ans. It arises from the spinous and transverse pro- 
cesses of the three upper false vertebras, from the spinous 
and transverse processes of the lumbar vertebras, and from 
the posterior spine of the os ilium ; it is inserted into the 
transverse processes of the dorsal vertebras, and into the 
lower edge of the ten upper ribs : its use is to extend the 
trunk. 

Ques. 12. What muscle arises from the pelvis and 
vertebras and is inserted into the ribs ? 

Ans. The sacro lumbalis. 

Ques. 13. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. Its origin is the same as that of the longissimus 
dorsi ; it is inserted into the curvature of the ribs : its use 
is to pull down the ribs, and to elevate the trunk. 

Ques. 14. What muscle arises from the pelvis and 
vertebras and is inserted into the vertebras 1 

Ans. The multifidus spinas. 

Ques. 15. Where is the origin, insertion, and use of 
this muscle ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior spine of the ilium, 
rom the spinous and transverse processes of the upper 



135 

false vertebrae, from the transverse and oblique processes 
of the lumbar vertebrae, from the transverse processes of 
the dorsal, and from those of the four inferior cervical 
vertebrae ; it is inserted into the spinous processes of all 
the true vertebrae, except the first ; its use is to extend the 
vertebrae. 

Ques. 16. What muscle arises from the pelvis, and is 
inserted into the ribs ? 

Ans. The quadratus lumborum. 

Ques. 17. "What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the crista ilii ; 
it is inserted into the last rib, the side of the last dorsal 
vertebra, and the transverse processes of all the lumbar ; 
its use is to bend the trunk to one side, and where both 
act to bend the trunk forward. 

Ques. 18. What muscles arise from the vertebrae, and 
are inserted into the ribs ? 

Ans. There are six ; namely, the scalenus anticus, the 
scalenus medius, the scalenus posticus, the cervicalis de- 
scendens, the serratus superior posticus, and serratus 
inferior posticus. 

Ques. 19. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the scalenus anticus ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the 
fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae ; it is inserted 
into the upper side of the first rib near its cartilage ; its 
use is to bend the neck, or to elevate the ribs on one 
side. 

Ques. 20. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the scalenus medius ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the cer- 
vical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the outer edge of the 
first rib till within an inch of its cartilage ; its use is to 
assist the scalenus anticus. 

Ques. 21. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the scalenus posticus ? 



136 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the 
fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the 
posterior part of the upper edge of the second rib ; its 
use it to assist the scalenus anticus. 

Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the cervicalis descendens ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five 
inferior cervical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the six su- 
perior ribs ; its use is to turn the neck obliquely back- 
ward, and to one side. 

Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the-serratus superior posticus 1 

Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the three 
last cervical, and two uppermost dorsal vertebrae ; it is 
inserted into the second, third, fourth, and fifth ribs ; its 
use is to elevate the ribs. 

Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the serratus inferior posticus ? 

Ans. It arises in common with the latissimus dorsi 
from the spinous processes of the two inferior dorsal and 
three superior lumbar vertebrae ; it is inserted into the 
upper edges of the four lower ribs, near their cartilages ; 
its use is to depress these ribs. 

Ques. 25. What muscles arise from the vertebrae and 
are inserted into them ? 

Ans. There are twelve sets ; namely, the longus colli, 
the splenitis cervicis, the obliquus capitis inferior, the 
transversaiis colli,, the semispinalis colli, the spinalis 
dorsi, the semispinalis dorsi, the interspinalis colli, the 
interspinales dorsi et lumborum, the intertransversales 
colli et lumborum, and the intertransversales dorsi. 

Ques. 26. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the longus colli ? 

Ans. It arises from the sides of the bodies of the three 
superior dorsal vertebrae, and from the roots of the trans- 
verse processes of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cer- 



137 

vieal ; it is inserted anteriorly into the bodies of all the 
cervical vertebrae ; its use is to bend the neck forward 
and somewhat laterally. 

Ques. 27. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the splenius cervicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the third 
and fourth dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the trans- 
verse processes of the five superior cervical vertebrae ; its 
use is to extend the neck. 

Ques. 28, What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the obliquus capitis inferior ? 

Ans. It arises from the spinous process of the second 
dorsal vertebras ; it is inserted into the transverse process 
of the first ; its use is to rotate the head. 

Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the transversalis colli ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five 
upper dorsal vertebrae, being situated between the trachelo 
mastoideus and the splenius cervicis and cervicalis de- 
scendens ; it is inserted into the transverse processes of 
the five middle cervical vertebras ; its use is to turn the 
neck backward and somewhat laterally. 

Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the semispinalis colli ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the six 
upper dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the spinous 
processes of the five middle cervical vertebrae ; its use is 
to extend the neck obliquely backward. 

Ques. 31. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the spinalis dorsi ? 

Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the two 
upper lumbar and three lower dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted 
into the spinous processes of the second, third, fourth, 
fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth dorsal vertebrae ; 
its use is to extend the spine. 
12* 



138 

Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the semispinalis dorsi ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the 
seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth dorsal vertebrae ; it is 
inserted into the spinous processes of the two inferior cer- 
vical and the seven upper dorsal vertebras ; its use is to 
extend the spine obliquely. 

Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the interspinales colli ? 

Ans. They arise from the spinous process of one cer- 
vical vertebrae, and are inserted into the spinous process 
of that next it ; their use is to extend the neck. 

Ques. 34. What are the interspinales dorsi et lum- 
borum ? 

Ans. They appear to partake more of the nature of 
ligaments than muscles. 

Ques. 35. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the intertransversales colli et lumborum ? 

Ans. They arise from the transverse process of one 
cervical or lumbar vertebras, and are inserted into the 
transverse process of that next it ; their use is to approx- 
imate their processes. 

Ques. 36. What are the intertransversales dorsi ? 
N Ans. They also seem to be ligamentous. 

Ques. 37. What muscles arise from one rib and are 
inserted into another ? 

Ans. The intercostales externi and' intercostales in- 
terni. 

Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the intercostales externi ? 

Ans. They arise from the inferior edge of one rib 
between the spine and its cartilage, and are inserted into 
the upper edge of another ; their fibres running from 
behind forward : their use is to elevate the ribs in in- 
spiration. 



139 

Ques. 39. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
intercostales interni ? 

Ans. They arise from the inferior edge of one rib be- 
tween the sternum and its angle, and are inserted like that 
of the external ; they run from before backward ; their use 
is to elevate the ribs in inspiration. 

Ques. 40. What muscle arises from the sternum and 
is inserted into the ribs ? 

Ans. The sterno-costalis, or triangularis sterni. 
Ques. 41. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 
Ans. It arises from the edge of the intercostales interni, 
and from the anterior half of the middle bone of the ster- 
num ; it is inserted into the inferior edge of the cartilages 
of the third, fourth, and fifth ribs. 

v Ques. 42. What muscle arises from the vertebrae and 
is inserted into the pelvis ? 
Ans. The psoas parvus. 

Ques. 43. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 
Ans. It arises laterally from the bodies of the two upper 
lumbar vertebrae ; it is inserted into the brim of the pelvis, 
opposite the acetabulum internally ; its use is to aid in 
bending the loins. 

Ques. 44. What muscles arise from one part of the 
pelvis and are inserted into another ? 

Ans. There are two, viz., the coccygeus and curvato- 
coccygis. 

Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
coccygeus ? 

Ans. It arises from the spine of the ischium, and the 
inside of the lesser sacro-ischiatic ligament ; it is inserted 
into the edge of the os coccygis ; its use is to pull that 
bone forward. 

Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the curvator coccygis ? 

Ans. It arises internally from the last bone of the os 
sacrum, and the first bone of the os coccygis ; it is in- 



140 

serted, after having joined its fellow, into the second and 
third, but principally into the fourth bone of the os coccy- 
gis; its use is to curve the os coccygis. 



SECTION XVI. 



OF THE MUSCLES OF THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION 

AND ANUS. 

Ques. 1. What muscle arises from the obliquus inter- 
nus abdominis, and is inserted into the testis 1 

Ans. The cremaster. 

Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 
' Ans. It arises from the internal oblique about the abdo- 
minal ring, through which it passes, and descends upon 
the spermatic cord ; it is inserted into the tunica vaginalis 
testis ; its use is to draw up the testis. 

Ques. 3. What is the dartos ? 

Ans. It is supposed to be a muscle of the scrotum ; but 
is, in fact, nothing more than condense cellular mem- 
brane. 

Ques. 4. What muscles arise from the tuber ischii and 
are inserted about the penis ? 

Ans. There are three, viz., the erector penis, the trans- 
versa perinei, and trans versus perinei alter. 



141 

Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
erector penis ? 

Ans. It arises from the tuber ischii, and in its ascent 
surrounds the whole crus penis. It is inserted near the 
union of the crura penis. Its use is to direct, if not to 
erect the penis. 

Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
transversus perinei ? 

Ans. It arises from the tuber ischii, passing trans- 
versely inward and forward ; it is inserted into the 
accelerator urinae and the sphincter ani, where the above 
mentioned muscles cover the bulb ; its use is to dilate 
the bulb while it draws up the verge of the anus. 

Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
transversus perinei alter ? 

Ans. It arises behind the transversus perinei, but runs 
more forward ; it is inserted into the accelerator, where 
it covers the bulb anteriorly ; its use is to assist the tians- 
versus perinei. This muscle is sometimes not to be found 
in some subjects. 

Ques. 8. What muscle is that which arises from one 
part of the penis and is inserted into another ? 

Ans. The accelerator urinae, or ejaculator seminis. 

Ques. 9. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the sphincter ani, the membranous 
part of the urethra and crus penis ; it is inserted into the 
middle of the bulb, and completely encloses it ; its use is 
to compress the bulb. 

Ques. 10. What muscle arises from the pubis and is 
inserted about the prostate gland 1 

Ans. The compressor prostatae. 

Ques. 11. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 

Ans. It arises above the levator ani from the internal 
part of the os pubis, between the lower part of the sym- 
physis and the upper part of the foramen ovale ; it is in- 
serted between the prostate and rectum, having surrounded 



142 



the former ; its use is to compress the inferior part of the 
prostate. 

Ques. 12. What muscles arise from the pelvis and 
are inserted about the anus ? 

Ans. There are three ; viz., the levator ani, the 
sphincter ani externus, and the sphincter ani internus. 

Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the levator ani ? 

Ans. It arises from the spine of the ischium, from the 
membrane covering the coccygeus and obturator internus, 
from the junction of the pubis and ischium, and from the 
pubis above the foramen thyroideum ; it is inserted, after 
surrounding the neck of the bladder, prostate, vesiculae 
seminales, and the termination of the rectum, into the 
sphincter ani, acceleratores urinae and tip of the os coccy- 
gis ; its use is to elevate the anus. 

Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the sphincter ani externus ? 

Ans. It arises from the tip of the os coccygis, and sur- 
rounds the anus ; it is inserted into the perineum, trans- 
versi perinei, and acceleratores urinae ; its use is to shut 
the anus, and to pull down the bulb of the urethra. 

Ques. 15. What is the sphincter ani internus ? 

Ans. It may be considered to be that part of the fibres 
of the rectum which surrounds its extremity 



143 



SECTION XVII. 



OF THE MUSCLES OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION 

AND ANUS. 

Ques. 1. What muscle is that which arises from the 
ischium and is inserted into the clitoris ? 

Ans. The erector clitoridis. 

Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner side of the branch of 
the ischium, and embraces the crus of the clitoris as far 
up as the os pubis ; it is inserted into the upper part of 
the crus and body of the clitoris ; its use is to draw the 
clitoris downward and backward. 

Ques. 3. What muscle arises from the clitoris, and is 
inserted into the vagina ? 

Ans. The sphincter vaginae. 

Ques. 4. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the union of the crura clitoridis. 
It is inserted into the sphincter ani and sides of the va- 
gina, which it surrounds. Its use is to contract the mouth 
of the vagina. 

Ques. 5. What muscle is that which arises from the 
tuber ischii, and is inserted into the perineum ? 

Ans. The transversus perinei. 

Ques. 6. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the cellular membrane, and the tu- 
berosity of the ischium. It is inserted into the peri- 
neum, between the pudendum and anus, and into the 
phincter ani. Its use is to sustain the perineum. 



144 

Ques. 7. What muscle arises from the tuber ischii, 
and is inserted into the vagina ? 

Ans. The trans versus perinei alter. 

Ques. 8. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. Its origin resembles that of the transversus peri- 
nei ; it is inserted into the side of the vagina ; its use is to 
assist the transversus perinei. 

Ques. 9. What muscle arises from one cms clitoridis 
and is inserted into the other ? 

Ans. The depressor urethra?. 

Ques. 10. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 

Ans. It arises from one crus of the clitoris, and involves 
the urethra? ; it is inserted into the other crus of the clito- 
ris ; its use is to depress the urethra. 

Ques. 11. What muscles arise from the pubis, and are 
inserted about the anus ? 

Ans. There are three, viz., the levator ani, the sphinc- 
ter ani externus, and sphincter ani internus. 

Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
levator ani 1 

Ans. It arises as in the male, and descends along the 
inferior part of the vagina and rectum ; it is inserted into 
the perineum, sphincter ani, and extremities of the rectum 
and vagina ; its use is to elevate the rectum and vagina. 

Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the sphincter ani externus ? 

Ans. It arises, as in the male, from the tip of the os coc- 
cygis, and surrounds the anus ; it is inserted into the peri- 
neum ; its use is to shut the rectum, and by pulling down 
the perineum to contract the vagina. 

Ques. 14. Describe the sphincter ani internus 1 

Ans. It exactly resembles that of the male. 



145 



SECTION XVIII. 



OF THE MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, FACE, ETC. 

Ques. 1. What muscle is that which arises from the 
integuments of the head and shoulder, and is inserted into 
those of the face ? 

Ana. The platysma myoides. 

Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the cellular substance covering the 
deltoid and pectoral muscles superiorly, and passes up- 
ward in a very thin layer almost immediately under the 
cutis of the neck ; it is inserted into the skin, covering the 
lower jaw between its angle and the chin; also into that 
covering the masseter and parotid gland ; its use is to ap- 
proximate the portions of integument into which it is in- 
serted. 

Ques. 3. How many muscles arise from the sternum, 
ribs, and vertebrae to be inserted into the head ? 

Ans. There are ten, viz., the sterno-cleido mastoideus, 
the rectus capitis anticus major, the rectus capitis anticus 
minor, the rectus capitis lateralis, the splenius capitis, the 
complexus, the trachelo mastoideus, the rectus capitis pos- 
ticus major, the obliquus capitis superior, and the rectus 
capitis posticus minor. 

Ques. 4. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the 
sterno-cleido mastoideus. 

Ans. It arises from the upper surface of the sternum 
laterally, and from the upper and anterior part of the cla- 
vicle ; it is inserted into the mastoid process, and as far 
13 



146 

back as the lambdoidal suture ; its use is to turn the head on 
one side, and bend it forward. 

Ques. 5. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the 
rectus capitis anticus major. 

Ans. It arises from the anterior parts of the transverse 
processes of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical ver- 
tebrae, by distinct commencements ; it is inserted into the 
basilary process of the occipital bone, just before the con- 
dyles ; its use is to bend the head forward. 

Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
rectus capitis anticus minor? 

Ans. It arises anteriorly from the first vertebra of the 
neck, opposite its superior oblique processes ; it is in- 
serted near the root of the condyles of the os occipitis 
further out than the former muscle ; its use is to nod the 
head. 

Ques. 7. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the 
rectus capitis lateralis. 

Ans. It arises anteriorly from the point of the transverse 
process of the first vertebra of the neck ; it is inserted 
into the ridge of the os occipitis external to the condyles ; 
its use is to bend the head to one or the other side. 

Ques. 8. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
splenius capitis ? 

Ans. It arises from the five inferior cervical spines and 
the ligamentum nuchee ; they recede from each other at the 
third vertebra of the neck, and show between them the 
complexus ; it is inserted into the hollow of the os occi- 
pitis below its transverse ridge, and externally to the com- 
plexus, also into the mastoid process posteriorly; its use 
is to pull the head backward and to one side. 

Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
complexus muscle? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the four 
inferior cervical and seven superior dorsal vertebrae, also 
from the spinous process of the first dorsal ; it is inserted 



147 

into the hollow of the os occipitis below its transverse 
ridge ; its use is to pull the head laterally backward. 

Ques. 10. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the trachelo-mastoideus. 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five 
inferior cervical, and three superior dorsal vertebrae ; it is 
inserted into the middle of the posterior part of the mas- 
toid process ; its use is to pull the head backward, but 
more laterally than the complexus. 

Ques. 11. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the rectus capitis posticus major. 

Ans. It arises from the external part of the spine of the 
second cervical vertebra ; it is inserted into the os occipi- 
tis about an inch behind the foramen magnum; its use is 
to pull the head backward and a little laterally. 

Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the obliquus capitis superior ? 

Ans. It arises from the transverse process of the first 
cervical vertebra ; it is inserted into the os occipitis ex- 
ternally to the rectus capitis posticus major, and below 
the complexus ; its use is to pull the head backward. 

Ques. 13. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the rectus eapitis posticus minor. 

Ans. It arises from the middle of the posterior arch of 
the atlas ; it is inserted into a depression immediately 
behind the foramen magnum ; its use is to pull the head 
backward. 

Ques. 14. What muscles arise from the skull and are 
inserted into the integuments ? 

Ans. The occipito frontalis and corrugator supercilii. 

Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the corrugator supercilii ? 

Ans. It arises from the internal angular process of the 
os frontis, thence running outward and upward ; it is in- 
serted internally into the inferior part of the occipito iron- 



148 

talis ; its use is to draw the eye-brows together, and to 
wrinkle the skin of the forehead longitudinally. 

Ques. 16. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the occipito frontalis. 

Ans. It arises posteriorly from the transverse ridge of 
the os occipitis, becoming tendinous as it passes upward 
over the cranium ; it is connected to the temporalis, the 
attollens aurem, and the zygoma, and advancing to the 
brow it becomes again muscular ; it is inserted into the 
orbicularis and the skin of the eye-brows ; its use is to 
raise the eye-brows and to pull backward, or to wrinkle 
the skin of the head. 

• Ques. 17. What muscles arise from the cranium and 
are inserted into the eye-lids ? 

Ans. The levator palpebrse superioris and orbicularis 
palpebrarum. 

Ques. 18. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the levator palpebrae superioris. 

Ans. It arises from the upper part of the foramen opti- 
cum of the os sphenoides, above the levator oculi ; it is 
inserted into the upper eye-lid ; its use is to pull the eye- 
lid upward. 

Ques. 19. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the orbicularis palpebrarum ? 

Ans. It arises at the inner angle of the eye, from the 
outside of the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone, 
and surrounding the eye externally ; it is inserted, after 
having passed over the lachrymal sac, where it arose ; 
its use is to shut the eye, press the eye-ball, squeeze the 
lachrymal gland, and convey the tears towards the puncta 
lachrymalia. 

Ques. 20. How many muscles arise from the cranium 
and are inserted into the eye-ball, and what are their 
names ? 

Ans. There are six ; viz., the levator oculi, depressor 



149 

oculi, adductor oculi, abductor oculi, trochlearis or obli- 
quus superior, and obliquus inferior oculi. 

Ques. 21. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the levator oculi. 

Ans. It arises from the upper part of the foramen opti- 
cum of the sphenoid bone, beneath the levator palpebral 
superioris ; it is inserted into the superior and anterior 
part of the sclerotic coat ; its use is to elevate the ball of 
the eye. 

Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the depressor oculi ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior part of the foramen 
opticum ; it is inserted opposite to the levator oculi ; its 
use is to depress the ball of the eye. 

Ques. 23. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the adductor oculi. 

Ans. It arises from the edge of the foramen opticum 
between the obliquus superior and the depressor ; it is 
inserted opposite to the inner angle ; its use is to adduct 
or turn the eye towards the nose. 

Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the abductor oculi ? 

Ans. It arises from the outward edge of the foramen 
opticum ; it is inserted opposite to the outer angle ; its 
use is to turn the eye towards the temple. 

Ques. 25. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the trochlearis or obliquus superior? 

Ans. It arises from the edge of the foramen opticum, 
between the levator and adductor oculi, thence turning to 
the cartilaginous trochlea on the inside of the internal 
angular process of the os frontis it passes through it, and 
turns its course downwards, outward, and backward ; il 
is inserted into the sclerotic coat, half way between the 
insertion of the levator and the optic nerve ; its use is to 
roll the ball of the eye from above inwardly, to pull it 
13* 



150 

forward, inward, and upward, and to turn the pupil 
downward and outward. 

Ques. 26. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the obliquus inferior oculi ? 

Ans. It arises from the outer edge of the orbitar pro- 
cess of the superior maxillary bone near the depression 
for the lachrymal duct, running outward and backward ; 
it is inserted into the sclerotic coat between the abductor 
and the optic nerve ; its use is to roll the ball of the eye 
from above outwardly, to pull it forward, inward, and 
and downward, to turn the pupil upward and inward. 

Ques. 27. How many muscles arise from the cranium 
and are inserted into the external ear ? 

Ans. There are three ; namely, the attollens aurem, 
anterior auris, and retrahens aurem. 

Ques. 28. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the attollens aurem. 

Ans. It arises from the tendon of the occipito frontalis, 
where it covers the temporal aponeurosis ; it is inserted 
superiorly into the back of the concha ; its use is to 
elevate the ear. 

Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the anterior auris ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the zygoma ; 
it is inserted anteriorly into the back of the helix ; its 
use is to pull the ear forward. 

Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the retrahens aurem ? 

Ans. It arises often by three origins from the external 
parts of the root of the mastoid process ; it is inserted 
posteriorly into the back edge of the concha ; its use is 
to pull the ear backward. 

Ques. 31. What muscles are attached wholly to the 
external ear ? 

Ans. The helicis major, helicis minor, tragicus, anti- 
tragicus, and trans versus auris. 



151 

Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the helicis major ? 

Ans. It arises from the acute process of the helix ; it 
is inserted into the helix a little higher up ; its use is to 
contract that part of the helix. 

Ques. 33. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the helicis minor. 

Ans. It arises from the inferior and anterior part of the 
helix, nearer its edge than the former ; it is inserted into 
the helix a little higher up ; its use is to bring together 
the edges of a fissure over which it passes. 

Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the tragi cus ? 

Ans. It arises anteriorly from the middle of the ante- 
rior edge of the concha ; it is inserted into the tip of the 
tragus ; its use is to pull the point of the tragus forward. 

Ques. 35. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the an ti tragus, 

Ans. It arises from the termination of the antihelix ; 
it is inserted into the tip of the antitragus ; its use is to 
approximate these points by shutting the fissure be- 
tween them. 

Ques. 36. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the transversus auris ? 

Ans. It arises from the superior and posterior edge of 
the back of the concha ; it is inserted superiorly into the 
back of the fossa naviculars, and posteriorly into the back 
of the fossa innominata ; its use is to approximate these 
cavities. 

Ques. 37. What muscles arise from the cranium, and 
are inserted into the ossicular auditus ? 

Ans. There are four; viz., the laxator tympani major, 
laxator tympani minor, tensor tympani, and the sta- 
pedius. 

Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
laxator tympani major? 



152 

Ans. It arises from the styliform process of the sphe- 
noid bone, running backward it passes through the fissura 
glasseri ; it is inserted into the long process of the mal- 
leus, wheie it rests upon the same fissure ; its use is to 
pull the malleus and membrana tympani obliquely 
forward. 

Ques. 39. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the laxator tympani minor. 

Ans. It arises from the superior posterior margin of the 
meatus auditorius, where the membrana tympani adheres 
to it, and descends inward and forward ; it is inserted 
into the neck of the malleus near its short process ; its 
use is to pull the malleus and membranae tympani forward 
and upward. 

Ques. 40. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the tensor tympani. 

Ans. It arises from the cartilaginous end of the eusta- 
chian tube and styliform process of the sphenoid bone, 
thence running back above the osseous part of the eusta- 
chian tube, within a thin osseous plate, it makes a turn 
forward into the tympanum ; it is inserted posteriorly into 
the handle of the malleus below its long process ; its use 
is to pull the malleus and membrana tympani inward. 

Ques. 41. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the stapedius. 

Ans. It arises from a hollow pyramid on the posterior 
side of the tympanum, before the lower end of the fallo- 
pian aqueduct ; it is inserted into the posteiior part of 
the head of the stapes ; its use is to pull the stapes up- 
ward and backward. 

Ques. 42. What muscle arises from one part of the 
nasal cartilage, and is inserted into another ? 

Ans. The compressor naris. 

Ques. 43. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the compresor naris ? 

Ans. It arises from the superior part of the catrilage of 



153 

the nose ; it is inserted into its inferior part ; its use is to 
compress the alee. 

Ques. 44. How many muscles arise from the cranium 
and are inserted into the nose and lips ? 

Ans. There are two ; the levator labii superioris alaeque 
nasi, and depressor labii superioris alaeque nasi. 

Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi ? 

Ans. It arises by two commencements ; one from the 
external edge of the orbital process of the superior max- 
illary bone, the , other from the upper part of its nasal 
process ; it is inserted first into the upper lip and orbi- 
cularis labiorum, and secondly into the upper lip and 
outer part of the ala nasi ; its use is to elevate the upper 
lip and ala nasi. 

Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the depressor labii superioris alaeque nasi ? 

Ans. It arises from the depression of the os maxillare 
superius, above the dentes incisivi and canini, thence run- 
ning up under the levator ; it is inserted into the upper 
lip and root of the ala nasi ; its use is to draw the upper 
lip and ala nasi downward and backward. 

Ques. 47. What muscle arises from the nose and is 
inserted into the upper lip ? 

Ans. The nasalis labii superioris. 

Ques. 48. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 

Ans. It arises from the tip and septum of the nose, en- 
larging and descending obliquely outward ; it is inserted 
into the orbicularis oris ; its use is to bring closer the 
angles of the mouth, or to depress the tip of the nose. 

Ques. 49. W r hat muscles arise from the cranium and 
are inserted into the lips ? 

Ans. There are six ; viz., the depressor labii inferioris, 
levator labii inferioris, depressor anguli oris, buccinator, 
zygomaticus major, and zygomaticus minor. 



154 



Ques. 50. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the depressor labii inferioris ? 

Ans. It arises anteriorly from the inferior part of the 
lower jaw; it is inserted into the edge of the under lip; 
its use is to depress the under lip. 

Ques. 51. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
levator labii inferioris ? 

Ans. It arises from the depression of the os maxillare 
inferius, below the dentes incisivi and caninus ; it is in- 
serted into the under lip and skin of the chin ; its use is 
to pull the parts upward. 

Ques. 52. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the depressor anguli oris ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior edge of the maxilla in- 
ferior, by the side of the chin ; it is connected externally 
to the integuments and to the platysma myoides, and in- 
ternally to the depressor labii inferioris, becoming gradu- 
ally narrower ; it is inserted into the angle of the mouth ; 
its use is to pull down the angle of the mouth. 

Ques. 53. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the buccinator ? 

Ans. It arises from the upper jaw behind the dens sa- 
pientiae, where it is connected with the constrictor pha- 
ryngeus superior, and from the lower jaw as far back as 
its dens sapientiae and the root of its coronoid process ; it 
is inserted into the angle of the mouth, within the orbi- 
cularis oris ; its use is to pull the angle of the mouth 
backward, and to press the chin inward. 

Ques. 54. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
zygomaticus major? 

Ans. It arises from the zygomatic process of the os 
malae ; it is inserted into the angle of the mouth ; its use 
is to draw upward and outward the corner of the mouth. 

Ques. 55. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
zygomaticus minor ? 

Ans. It arises from above the origin of the zygoma- 



155 

ticus major ; it is inserted into the upper lip, near the cor- 
ner of the mouth ; its use is to draw upward and outward 
the corner of the mouth. 

Ques. 56. What muscle arises at one part of the lips 
and is inserted at another ? 

Ans. The orbicularis oris. 

Ques. 57. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the other muscles of the lips, the 
superior fibres descending, the inferior ascending, and 
decussating each other about the angle of the mouth ; it is 
inserted into fibres from the opposite side ; its use is to 
shut the mouth and compress the lips. 

Ques. 58. What muscle arises from one part of the 
upper jaw and is inserted into another? 

Ans. The anomalus maxillae superioris. 

Ques. 59. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the upper part of the fossa of the 
cuspidates of the upper jaw; it is inserted below the ori- 
gin of the first portion of the levator labii superioris, alae- 
que nasi ; its use is to act only on the vessels and nerves 
from the attachment of both its ends to one bone. 

Ques. 60. What muscles arise from the cranium and 
are inserted into the lower jaw ? 

Ans. There are five, viz., the temporalis, masseter, 
pterygoideus externus, pterygoideus internus, and digas- 
tricus. 

Ques. 61. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the temporalis. 

Ans. It arises from the temporal ridge and depression 
of the os frontis and os parietale, from the temporal process 
of the sphcenoid bone, and from the aponeurosis which 
covers it ; it is inserted around the coronoid process of the 
lower jaw; its use is to pull the lower jaw upward and 
backward. 

Ques. 62. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the masseter. 



156 

Ans. It arises from the superior maxillary bone where 
it joins the os malae, and from the inferior and interior 
part of the zygoma throughout its length, the external 
fibres starting backward, the internal forward ; it is in- 
serted into the outside of the angle and ramus of the lower 
jaw; its use is to elevate the lower jaw and to pull it a 
little forward or backward. 

Ques. 63. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of 
the pterygoideus externus. 

Ans. It arises from the outside of the external ptery- 
goid process of the sphcenoid bone, from part of the tube- 
rosity of the os maxillare, and from the root of the tempo- 
ral process of the os sphcenoides ; it is inserted into a 
cavity on the anterior part of the neck of the condyloid 
process of the lower jaw, and into the capsular ligament 
of the joint; its use is to pull the jaw forward and to the 
opposite side, and to pull the ligament from the joint. 

Ques. 64. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
pterygoideus internus ? 

Ans. It arises from the pterygoid fossa of the sphcenoid 
and palate bones ; it is inserted into the angle of the lower 
jaw internally; its use is to pull the jaw upward, and 
towards the other side. 

Ques. 65. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
digastricus ? 

Ans. It arises from the deep fossa at the root of the 
mastoid process of the temporal bone ; becoming tendinous 
in the middle, it perforates the stylo-hyoideus and is fixed 
by a ligament to the os hyoides, and again ascends ; it is 
inserted into a rough sinuosity at the inferior edge of the 
chin ; its use is to depress the lower jaw, and open the 
mouth, and when the jaw is fixed to raise the larynx and 
pharynx in deglutition. 



157 



SECTION XIX. 

OF THE LARYNX AND PHARYNX. 

Larynx. 

Ques. 1. What is the larynx ? 

Ans. It is the. organ of voice. 

Ques. 2, Where is it situated ? 

Ans. At the upper and fore part of the neck, at the 
root of the tongue, just below the os hyoides. 

Ques. 3. Of what is it composed ? 

Ans. Chiefly of cartilages and ligaments, which when 
united, form a hollow body permanently open. 

Ques. 4. Of how many cartilages does it consist ? 

Ans. Five ; namely, the thyroid, the cricoid, the two 
arytenoid, and epiglottis. 

Ques. 5. Where is the thyroid cartilage ? 

Ans. It is placed at the anterior part of the larynx. 

Ques. 6. What is its form ? 

Ans. It consists of two alae, which form a projecting 
angle forward, and then slope backward ; its superior 
edge has a notch in the middle that may be easily felt, 
and elevations on each side, and lerminates in two cornua 
posteriorly, which ascend ; its inferior edge is straight, 
and terminates also in two shorter cornua, which bend 
downward ; its posterior edges are entirely straight, and 
on the outer side of each ala a line runs from a small knob 
near its upper cornu, forward and downward, to terminate 
in another. 

Ques. 7. What is the situation of the cricoid car- 
tilage ? 

14 



158 

Ans. It is placed at the lower part of the larynx, its 
broadest side being backward. 

Ques. 8. What is its form ? 

Ans. The outer surface of its posterior side has upon it 
a longitudinal line, and depressions on each side of it, for 
the attachment of muscles ; the top of the same side 
slopes downward and outward, terminating in angles, 
which are smooth for connexion with the arytenoid car- 
tilages, and from these angles elevated lines descend to 
terminate in smooth surfaces for the lower cornua of 
the thyroid cartilage. 

Ques. 9. What is the situation of the arytenoid 
cartilages ? 

Ans. They are placed posteriorly upon the greater side 
of the cricoid cartilages. 

Ques. 10. What is their form 1 

Ans. They are somewhat of a pyramidal form, but 
their posterior side is concave, their anterior convex, their 
external edge oblique, and their internal one straight ; 
their bases rest on the cricoid cartilage, with which they 
have a moveable connexion. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the epiglottis ? 

Ans. It is placed anteriorly above the other cartilages. 

Ques. 12. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is narrower, but somewhat thick at its base, 
and its superior partis thin, flat, and flexible, with convex 
edges, and it is also convex posteriorly, and concave an- 
teriorly. 

Ques. 13. What ligaments docs the larynx possess ? 

Ans. A short ligament connects the body of the os 
hyoides to the notch of the thyroid cartilage, from which 
a ligament proceeds to the epiglottis, and another from the 
epiglottis to the body of the os hyoides, thus leaving 
behind them a triangular space ; ligaments also connect 
the cornua of the os hyoides to those of the thyroid car- 
tilage, and the lateral ligaments of the epiglottis are 



159 



attached to the tops of the arytenoid cartilages. The 
inferior cornua of the thyroid cartilage are likewise con- 
nected to the lower articular surfaces of the cricoid by 
short ligaments, and the inferior edge of the one is also 
connected to the superior part of the other ; the cricoid 
cartilage is connected by ligaments to the bases of the 
arytenoid cartilages above, and to the first ring of the 
trachea below. 

Ques. 14. What is the glottis? 

Ans. It is an opening formed between two small liga- 
ments which proceed from the middle of the posterior 
side of the thyroid cartilage to the bases of the arytenoid 
cartilages, and immediately beneath these two other liga- 
ments are placed, the superior and inferior ligaments on 
each side leave a narrow fissure between them, which is 
the opening of a small sac. 

Ques. 15. What is the use of the larynx ? 

Ans. It forms the chief part of the organ of voice, and 
affords a passage permanently open for respiration ; it also 
gives attachment to numerous muscles. 



Pharynx. 

Ques. 16. What is the pharynx? 

Ans. It is a membranous and muscular bag expanded 
above, contracted below, and terminating in the gullett or 
aesophagus. 

Ques. 17. What is its situation? 

Ans. It is placed behind the mouth, nares, and larynx, 
below the cuneiforme process of the os occipitis, before 
the cervical vertebrae, and above the oesophagus. 

Ques. 18. How is it composed ? 

Ans. It is composed of circular muscular fibres, and of 
a membrane copiously supplied Avith mucous glands. 

Ques. 19. Into what portions is it divided? 



160 

Ans. It is divided into three portions — a superior, 
which is called its arch ; a middle, which is its body ; and 
an inferior, which is its sphincter. 

Ques. 20. What is its form ? 

Ans. Its upper part is extremely wide, extending almost 
all the way between the styloid processes ; it then con- 
tracts on each side and behind the upper part of the la- 
rynx ; again expanding behind the larynx and before the 
atlas it forms considerable folds. 

Ques. 21. What is its use ? 

Ans. It is chiefly useful in deglutition, receives the 
food, and transmits it to the oesophagus. 



SECTION XX. 

OF THE MUSCLES OF THE ORGANS OF VOICE AND DEGLU- 
TITION. 

Ques. 1. How many muscles arise from the cranium 
and are inserted into the larynx ? 

' Ans. There are four ; the digastricus, the stylo-hyoideus, 
mylo-hyoideus, and genio-hyoideus. 

[The origin, insertion, and use of the digastricus hav- 
ing already been noticed, it will therefore be 
passed.] 



161 

Ques. 2. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
stylo-hyoideus ? 

Ans. It arises from the middle and inferior part of the 
styloid process ; it is inserted into the lateral and inferior 
part of the body of the os hyoides, below its middle its 
fibres separate to allow the passage of the tendon of the 
digastricus ; its use is to pull the os hyoides upward and 
to one side, 

Ques. 3. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
mylo-hyoideus ? 

Ans. It arises from a line on the inside of the lower 
jaw, between the last dens molaris, and the middle of the 
chin, where it joins its fellow; it is inserted into the mid- 
dle of the base of the os hyoides and its fellow ; its use is 
to pull the os hyoides forward, upward, and laterally. 

Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
genio-hyoideus ? 

Ans. It arises from a rough protuberance in the middle 
of the inside of the chin ; it is inserted into the middle of 
the upper part of the os hyoides ; its use is to pull the 
os hyoides forward and upward, and assist in depressing 
the lower jaw. 

Ques. 5* How many muscles arise from the trunk 
and are inserted into the larynx ? 

Ans. Two ; viz., the sterno-hyoideus and sterno-thy- 
roideus. 

Ques. 6. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the 
sterno-hyoideus ? 

Ans. It arises from the junction of the sternum^and 
clavicle, and from the cartilage of the first rib ; it is in- 
serted into the middle of the lower part of the basis of 
the os hyoides ; its use is to pull the os hyoides down- 
ward. 

Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
sterno-thyroideus ? 

14* 



162 

Ans. It arises from the edge of the upper bone of the 
sternum, opposite the cartilage of the first rib internally ; 
it is inserted into the rough line, at the external part of 
the lower edge of the thyroid cartilage ; its use is to pull 
the thyroid cartilage downward. 

Ques. 8. What muscle arises from the shoulder and 
is inserted into the larynx? 

Ans. The omo-hyoideus. 

Ques. 9. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the semilunar notch of the supe- 
rior costa of the scapula, ascending upward and forward 
behind the sterno cleido mastoideus ; it becomes tendi- 
nous, and again grows fleshy ; it is inserted into the sides 
of the lower part of the basis of the os hyoides ; its use 
is to pull the os hyoides obliquely downward. 

Ques. 10. What muscles have both origin and inser- 
tion on the larynx ? 

Ans. There are nine ; viz., the thyro-hyoideus, mus- 
culus glandulae thyroideae, crico-thyroideus, cryco-arytae- 
noideus posticus, crico-arytaenoideus lateralis, thyro-ary- 
taenoideus major, thyro-arytaenoideus minor, arytaenoideus 
obliquus, and arytaenoideus trans versus, 

Ques. 11. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the thyro-hyoideus ? 

Ans. It arises from a rough line upon the external part 
of the thyroid cartilage ; it is inserted into part of the 
basis and all the cornu of the os hyoides externally ; its 
use is to pull the os hyoides downward, or the thyroid 
cartilage upward. 

Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the musculus glandulae thyroideae ? 

Ans. It arises from the lower edge of the basis of the 
os hyoides, and crosses the thyroid cartilage ; it is in- 
serted into the middle of the thyroid gland ; its use is to 
pull the gland toward the os hyoides. 



163 

Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the crico-thyroideus ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior and lateral parts of the 
cricoid cartilage, and runs obliquely upward and outward ; 
it is inserted by two terminations, one into the base of 
the thyroid cartilage the other into its inferior cornu ; its 
use is to pull downward and forward the thyroid, or 
upward and backward the cricoid. 

Ques; 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the crico-arytaenoideus posticus ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the cricoid 
cartilage ; it is inserted posteriorly into the base of the 
arytenoid ; its use is to pull back the arytenoid cartilages, 
and to open the rim a glottidis. 

Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
crico-arytaenoideus lateralis 1 

Ans. It arises from the side of the cricoid cartilage, 
where it is covered by the thyroid ; it is inserted into the 
side of the base of the arytenoid ; its use is to open the 
rima glottidis. 

Ques. 16. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the thyro-arytaenoideus major ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior and posterior part of 
the body of the thyroid cartilage, running upward and 
backward, along the side of the glottis. It is inserted into 
the arytenoid cartilage above and before the crico-ary- 
taenoideus laterales ; its use is to pull forward the arytaenoid 
towards the middle of the thyroid, and to relax the glottis. 

Ques. 17. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the thyro-arytaenoideus minor ? 

Ans. It arises from the thyroid cartilage, near its inci- 
sura cordiformis ; it is inserted into the arytaenoid cartilage ; 
its use is the same as that of the thyro-arytaenoideus 
major. 

Ques. 18. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the arytaenoideus obliquus ? 



164 

Ans. It arises from the base of one arytenoid cartilage, 
and crosses its fellow ; it is inserted into the tip of the 
other arytenoid cartilage ; its use is to approximate the 
arytenoid cartilages. 

Ques. 19. What muscle arises from one arytenoid 
cartilage, and is inserted into the other ? 

Ans. The arytaenoideus transversus. 

Ques. 20. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the side of one arytenoid cartilage, 
and is inserted into the other side of the other arytenoid 
cartilage ; its use is to shut the rima glottidis. 

Ques. 21. What muscles arise from the cranium, and 
are inserted into the tongue ? 

Ans. There are two, viz., the genio-glossus and stylo- 
glossus. 

Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
genio-glossus ? 

Ans. It arises from a rough point on the inside of the 
middle of the chin, and its fibres run forward, upward, and 
backward ; it is inserted into the tip, middle, and root of 
the tongue, slightly also into the base of the os hyoides, 
laterally ; its use is to draw the tip of the tongue back, 
its middle down, or to make its dorsum concave ; to draw 
also the os hyoides forward, and to thrust the tongue out 
of the mouth. 

Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
stylo-glossus ? 

Ans. It arises from the styloid process, and the lateral 
ligaments of the lower jaw ; it is inserted into the root 
and sides of the tongue ; its use is to pull it aside, and 
backward. 

Ques. 24. What muscle arises from the os hyoides, 
and is inserted into the tongue ? 

Ans. The hyo-glossus. 

Ques. 25. What is its origin, insertion, and use 1 

Ans. It arises from the base, cornu, and appendix of 



165 

the os hyoides ; it is inserted into the side of the tongue ; 
its use is to pull the tongue inward and downward. 

Ques. 26. What muscle is wholly situated in the 
tongue ? 

Ans. The lingualis. 

Ques. 27. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the side of the root of the tongue, 
and runs forward between the hyo and genio-glossus ; it 
is inserted into the tip of the tongue ; its use is to contract 
the tongue in its length. 

Ques. 28. How many muscles arise from the cranium 
and are inserted into the palate ? 

Ans. There are two, viz., the circumflexus or tensor 
palati, and levator palati. 

Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
circumflexus or tensor palati ? 

Ans. It arises from the styliform process of the sphce- 
noid bone and from the osseous part of the eustachian 
tube, it runs down along the pterygoideus internus, passes 
over the hook of the internal pterygoid process, and 
spreads into a broad membrane ; it is insested into the 
velum pendulum palati, and the semilunar edge of the 
palate bone ; its posterior fibres sometimes join the con- 
strictor pharyngeus superior and palato pharyngeus ; its 
use is to draw the velum downward, and to stretch it 
laterally. 

Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
levator palati ? 

Ans. It arises from the extremity of the petrous portion 
of the temporal bone, and from the membranous part of the 
eustachian tube ; it is inserted into the velum pendulum 
palati as far as the uvula; its use is to draw the velum 
upward and backward, and so shut the passage from the 
fauces to the nose. 

Ques. 31. How many muscles arise from the larynx 
and are inserted into the epiglottis ? 



166 

Ans. Three ; viz., the thyro-epiglottideus major, thy- 
ro-epiglottideus minor, and arytaeno-epiglottideus. 

Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
thyro-epiglottideus major? 

Ans. It arises by a few fibres from the thyroid carti- 
lage ; it is inserted into the epiglottis laterally ; its use is 
to draw downward and to expand the epiglottis. 

Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
thyro-epiglottideus minor ? 

Ans. It arises just above the thyro-epiglottideus ma- 
jor; it is inserted into the side of the epiglottis above its 
root ; its use is to draw downward, and to expand the 
epiglottis. 

Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
ary taeno-epiglottideus ? 

Ans. It arises from the lateral and upper part of the 
arytenoid cartilage ; it runs along the outside of the ex- 
ternal rima ; it is inserted into the epiglottis along with 
the thyro-epiglottideus minor ; its use is to pull the epi- 
glottis upon the rima. 

- Ques. 35. What muscle arises from the cranium and 
is inserted into the uvula ? 
Ans. The azygos uvulae. 

Ques. 36. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 
Ans. It arises from the extremity of the suture of the 
palate bones, and runs down the velum and uvula ; it is 
inserted into the tip of the uvula ; its use is to elevate the 
uvula. 

Ques. 37. What muscle arises from the tongue, and 
is inserted into the fauces ? 

Ans. The constrictor isthmi faucium. 

Ques. 38. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the side of the tongue near its root, 

and runs upwards within the anterior arch, before the 

amygdala ; it is inserted anteriorly into the middle of the 

velum at the root of the uvula, being there connected with 



167 

its fellow and with the palato-pharyngeus ; its use is to 
pull the velum and the root of the tongue toward each 
other, so contracting the passage between the two arches 
and shutting the opening into the fauces. 

Ques. 39. How many muscles arise from the cranium 
and are inserted into the pharynx ? 

Ans. There are two ; the stylo-pharyngeus and constric- 
tor pharyngis superior. 

Ques. 40. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
stylo-pharyngeus ? 

Ans. It arises from the root of the styloid process ; it 
is inserted into the side of the pharynx, and back of the 
thyroid cartilage ; its use is to dilate and to elevate the 
pharynx and thyroid cartilage. 

Ques. 41. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
constrictor pharyngis superior ? 

Ans. It arises from the cuneiforme process of the os 
occipitis, near the anterior condyloid foramina ; from the 
pterygoid process of the sphcenoid bones ; from the upper 
and under jaw, near the dentes sapientitae, being connected 
at this point with the buccinator, and with fibres from the 
tongue and palate ; it is inserted into a white line in the 
middle of the posterior part of the pharynx, being covered 
by the constrictor medius ; its use is to compress the 
upper part of the pharynx and to draw it upward and for- 
ward. 

Ques. 42. How many muscles arise from the larynx 
and are inserted into the pharynx ? 

Ans. There are two ; the constrictor pharyngis medius, 
and constrictor pharyngis inferior. 

Ques. 43. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
constrictor pharyngis medius ? 

Ans. It arises from the appendix and cornu of the os 
hyoides, and from the ligament connecting it to the thyroid 
cartilage ; it is inserted into the white line on the back of 
the pharynx, its upper fibres being connected to the cu- 



168 

ne iforme process of the occipital bone ; its use is to com- 
press the pharynx, and to draw it and the os hyoides 
upward. 

Ques. 44. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
constrictor pharyngis inferior 1 

Ans. It arises laterally from the thyroid cartilage near 
the attachment of the sterno, and thyro-hyoidei ; also 
from the cricoid cartilage, near the crico-thyroideus, being 
the largest of the three constrictors ; it is inserted into the 
white line on the back of the pharynx ; its superior fibres 
covering half the constrictor medius, and its inferior the 
commencement of the oesophagus ; its use is to compress 
the pharynx, and to raise it and the larynx upward. 

Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
palato-pharyngeus ?- 

Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the velum 
pendulum palati at the root of the uvula, and also from 
the tendinous expansion of the tensor palati, passing be- 
hind the amydala and within the posterior arch, its fibres 
run back to the sides and upper part of the pharynx ; it is 
inserted into the posterior and upper edge of the thyroid 
cartilage, and between the inferior constrictors and the 
pharynx ; its use is powerfully to contract the fauces. 



169 



SECTION XXI. 



MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 

Ques. 1. How many muscles arise from the trunk and 
are inserted into the shoulder? 

Ans. Six; viz., the pectoralis minor, annularis scapulae, 
trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus magnus, and subclavius. 

Ques. 2. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the 
pectoralis minor. 

Ans. It arises tendinous and fleshy from the upper edge 
of the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, near their cartilages ; 
it is inserted by a short tendon into the coracoid process 
of the scapula ; its use is to pull the scapula forward and 
downward. 

Ques. 3. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the 
augularis scapulas. 

Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five 
superior vertebras of the neck ; it is inserted into the su- 
perior angle of the scapula ; its use is to elevate the base 
of the scapula. 

Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
trapezius ? 

Ans. It arises from the spine and transverse ridge of 
the occiput, the ligamentum nuchas, the spinous processes 
of the two inferior vertebrae of the neck, and from all those 
of the back ; it is inserted into the posterior half of the 
clavicle, the acromion, and almost all the spina scapulae ; 
its use is to pull the scapula upward and backward, or 
backward and downward. 

Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
rhomboideus ? 

15 



170 

Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the three 
inferior vertebrae of the neck, the ligamentum nuchae, and 
the five superior of the back ; it is inserted into all 
the base of the scapula ; its use is to draw the scapula 
inward and upward. 

Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
serratus magnus ? 

Ans. It arises from the nine superior ribs, by as many 
digitations ; it is inserted into all the inner edge of the base 
and angles of the scapula ; its use is to pull the scapula 
forward. 

Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
subclavius ? 

Ans. It arises from the cartilage of the first rib ; it is 
inserted into almost all the inferior side of the clavicle ; its 
use is to pull the clavicle downward. 

Ques. 8. How many muscles arise from the trunk, 
and are inserted into the humerus ? 

Ans. There are two, viz., the pectoralis major and 
latissimus dorsi. 

Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
pectoralis major. 

Ans. It arises from the cartilages of the fifth and sixth 
ribs, where its fibres mix with those of the obliquus ex- 
ternus abdominis, from almost all the length of the sternum, 
and from more than half the anterior edge of the clavicle ; 
it is inserted by two broad tendons, which cross each 
other into the outer ridge of the bicipital groove ; its use 
is to move the arm upward and inward. 

Ques. 10. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the latissimus dorsi ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the crista ilii, 
from all the sacral and lumbar vertebral spines, and from 
the seven inferior dorsal, and by digitations from three or 
four of the inferior ribs ; passing over the inferior angle 
of the scapula, it turns before the teres major; it is in- 



171 

serted into the inner edge of the bicipital groove ; its use 
is to pull the arm backward and downward, and to rotate 
the humerus. 

Ques. 11. How many muscles arise from the scapula, 
and are inserted into the humerus ? 

Ans„ Seven, viz., the deltoides, coraco-brachialis, 
supra-spinatus, infra-spinatus, teres minor, teres major, 
and subscapularis. 

Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the deltoid muscle ? 

Ans. It arises from that anterior portion of the clavicle 
which is unoccupied by the pectoralis major, from the 
acromion, and inferior edge of the spina scapulas ; it is 
inserted into an extensive roughness on the middle of the 
outside of the humerus ; its use is to pull the arm upward 
and forward, directly upward, or upward and backward. 

Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the coraco-brachialis ? 

Ans. It arises from the tip of the processus coracoides, 
adhering to the short head of the biceps ; it is inserted 
into the middle of the internal part of the humerus ; its 
use is to raise the arm, and move it forward. 

Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the supra-spinatus ? 

Ans. It arises from all the supra-spinal fossa of the sca- 
pula, — passing under the acromion, it adheres to the 
capsular ligament of the shoulder ; it is inserted into the 
superior depression of the tuberosity on the outside of the 
bicipital groove ; its use is to raise the arm and the cap- 
sular ligaments, 

Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the infra-spinatus ? 

Ans. It arises from all the infra-spinal, fossa scapula?, 
and adheres to the capsular ligament ; it is inserted into 
the middle depression of the same tuberosity ; its use is 
to raise the humerus, and to rotate it outward. 



172 

Ques. 16. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the teres minor ? 

Ans. It arises from the costa inferior scapulae, and 
adheres to the capsular ligament ; it is inserted into the 
inferior depression of the same tuberosity ; its use is to 
draw the humerus backward, and to rotate it outward. 

Ques. 17. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
teres major? 

Ans. It arises from the outside of the inferior angle of 
the scapula, and adheres to the capsular ligament ; it is 
inserted into the inner edge of the bicipital groove; its 
use is to draw the humerus backward, and to rotate it 
inward. 

Ques. 18. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the sub-scapularis ? 

Ans. It arises from all the inside of the scapula, and 

adheres to the capsular ligament ; it is inserted into the 

internal tuberosity, at the head of the humerus ; its use is 

to rotate the humerus inwards, and to bring it to the side 

\ of the body. 

Ques. 19. How many muscles arise from the shoulder, 
and are inserted into the forearm ? j 

Ans. There are two, viz., the biceps cubiti, and the 
long head of the triceps. 

Ques. 20. AVhat is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the biceps cubiti ? 

Ans. It arises by two heads, one from the superior 
margin of the glenoid cavity ; it passes through the cap- 
sular ligament of the shoulder, over the head of the 
humerus, and through the groove between the tuberosities ; 
the other or short head arises conjoined with the coraco- 
brachialis, from the coracoides scapulae ; both heads unite 
at the middle of the humerus : it is inserted into the tube- 
rosity on the inner side of the upper end of the radius ; 
its use is to supinate the hand, to bend the forearm, and 
to raise the arm. 



173 

<iues. 21. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the long head of the triceps ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior costa scapulae, near its 
cervix ; it is inserted into the olecranon of the ulna ; its use 
is to extend the fore arm, and to carry the arm backward. 

Ques. 22. How many muscles arise from the humerus, 
and are inserted into the forearm ? 

Ans. There are six, viz., the shorter heads of the 
triceps, the anconeus, brachialis internus, supinator radii 
longus, supinator radii brevis, and pronator radii teres. 

Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the shorter heads of the triceps ? 

Ans. The second or most external arises from the back 
of the humerus, near its upper end, — and the third, which 
is the shortest, from the back of the humerus lower down, 
and from the intermuscular ligament ; they form one 
muscle with the long head, and their common insertion is 
into the olecranon ulnae ; the use of the triceps is to extend 
the forearm. 

Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the anconeus ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the external 
condyle of the humerus ; it is inserted into a ridge on the 
outer and posterior part of the upper end of the ulna ; its 
use is to extend the forearm. 

Ques. 25. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the brachialis internus ? 

Ans. It arises from the middle of the os humeri, around 
the insertion of the deltoid, and from the intermuscular 
ligament, passing over the capsular ligament of the elbow 
joint ; it is inserted into the coronoid process of the ulna ; 
its use is to bend the forearm, and to pull upward the 
capsular ligament. 

Ques. 26. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the supinator radii longus ? 

15* 



174 

Ans. It arises from the ridge above the external con- 
dyle of the os humeri, as far up as the middle of the bone ; 
it is inserted into the outer side of the inferior end of the 
radius ; its use is to bend the elbow joint, and to supinate 
the hand. 

Ques. 27. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the supinator radii brevis ? 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the os 
humeri, and from the external upper part of the ulna, ad- 
hering to the capsular ligament ; it is inserted into the 
neck and tubercle of the radius, and into the ridge running 
from that downward and outward ; its use is to supinate 
the hand. 

Ques. 28. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the pronator radii teres ? 

Ans. It arises from the internal condyle of the humerus, 
and likewise from the coronoid process of the ulna ; it is 
inserted into the middle of the outside of the radius ; its 
use is to pronate the hand. 

Ques. 29. How many muscles arise from the humerus, 
and are inserted into the hand ? 

Ans. Six ; viz., the flexor carpi ulnaris, palmaris longus, 
flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis longior, ex- 
tensor carpi radialis brevior, and extensor carpi ulnaris. 

Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the flexor carpi ulnaris ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus, 
the outer side of the olecranon, and the fascia of the fore- 
arm ; it is inserted into the os pisiforme, and metacarpal 
bone of the little finger ; its use is to bend the arm and 
wrist joints. 

Ques. 31. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the palmaris longus ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus ; it is 
inserted into the carpal ligament, and aponeurosis palmaris ; 
its use is to bend the wrist, and to stretch the aponeurosis. 



175 

Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor carpi radialis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus, 
and from the upper end of the ulna anteriorly ; adhering 
to the capsular ligament, it is inserted anteriorly into the 
upper end of the metacarpal bone of the fore finger, having 
passed through a groove of the trapezium ; its use is to 
bend the wrist and elbow joints. 

Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor carpi radialis longior ? 

Ans. It arises from the lower part of the external ridge 
of the humerus, above its external condyle ; it is inserted 
posteriorly into the upper end of the metacarpal bone of 
the fore finger; its use is to extend the wrist joint and 
occasionally to bend the elbow joint. 

Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor carpi radialis brevior ? 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- 
rus, and from the external lateral ligament of the elbow 
joint ; it is inserted posteriorly into the upper part of the 
metacarpal bones of the fore and middle fingers ; its use is 
to extend the wrist joint. 

Ques. 35. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor carpi ulnaris ? 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- 
rus, and from the middle of the ulna through the groove, 
at the extremity of which it passes ; it is inserted poste- 
riorly into the upper end of the metacarpal bone of the 
little finger; its use is to extend the wrist joint. 

Ques. 36. How many muscles arise from the humerus 
and are inserted into the fingers ? 

Ans. There are three, viz., the flexor digitorum subli- 
mis perforatus, flexor longus pollicis, and extensor digi- 
torum communis. 

Ques. 37. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor digitorum sublimis perforatus ? 



176 

Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus, 
the coronoid process of the ulna, the tuberosity of the 
radius, and the middle of the fore part of the radius ; 
it sends off four tendons ; it is inserted anteriorly into 
the upper end of all the bones of the second phalanx, 
dividing near the ends of the first for the passage of the 
tendons of the perforans ; its use is to bend the first and 
second joints of the fingers, the wrist and elbow joint. 

Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor longus pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humeris, 
and from the anterior side of the radius below the tube- 
rosity ; it is inserted into the last bone of the thumb ; its 
use is to bend the last bone of the thumb, and also the 
wrist joint. 

Ques. 39. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor digitorum communis ? 

Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- 
rus, adhering to the supinator brevis ; it divides into four 
tendons, which are connected by small transverse ones 
upon the back of the hand ; it is inserted into the poste- 
rior part of all the bones of the fingers ; its use is to extend 
all the joints of the fingers, the wrist and the elbow joint. 

Ques. 40. What muscle arises from the ulna and inter- 
osseous ligament and is inserted into the phalanges of the 
fingers ? 

Ans. The flexor digitorum profundus perforans. 

Ques. 41. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 

Ans. It arises from the upper, anterior, and outer part 
of the ulna, and from part of the interosseous ligament ; 
it is inserted, after passing behind the flexor sublimis and 
annular ligament (its tendons perforating those of the 
above named muscles), anteriorly into the root of the last 
bone of each finger; its use is to bend the joints of the 
fingers and the wrist joint. 



177 

Ques. 42. What muscles arise from the tendons of 
the flexor profundus and are inserted into the phalanges 
of the fingers ? 

Ans. The lumbricales ; they are four in number. 

Ques. 43. What is their origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. They arise from the outside of the tendons of the 
flexor profundus ; they are inserted into the inside of the 
first joint of the finger, and into the back of each of the 
other joints ; their use is to adduct these fingers, to bend 
their first joint, and to extend the rest. 

Ques. 44. How many muscles arise from the forearm, 
and are inserted into the fingers ? 

Ans. There are five ; viz., the extensor ossis meta- 
carpi pollicis, extensor primi internodii pollicis, extensor 
secundi internodii pollicis, flexor longus pollicis, and in- 
dicator. 

Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the ulna, 
from the middle of the radius, and from the interosseous 
ligament ; it is inserted into the'trapezium and metacarpal 
bone of the thumb ; its use is to extend the wrist joint 
and the metacarpal bone of the thumb. 

Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the extensor primi internodii pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the ulna and 
the interosseous ligament ; it is inserted into the back of 
the first and second bones of the thumb ; its use is to 
extend the wrist, the metacarpal and first bone of the thumb. 

Ques. 47. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the extensor secundi internodii pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the ulna 
and from the interosseous ligament, and its tendon passes 
through a groove at the lower end of the radius ; it is 
inserted into the last bone of the thumb ; its use is to 
extend the wrist and the last joint of the thumb. 



178 

[The flexor longus pollicis has already been noticed in 
Question and Answer No. 38.] 

Ques. 48. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the indicator ? 

Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the ulna ; 
it is inserted into the posterior part of the fore-finger ; its 
use is to extend the fore-finger. 

Ques. 49. What muscle arises from the ulna and is 
inserted into the radius ? 

Ans. The pronator quadratus. 

Ques. 50. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the lower and inner part of the 
ulna : it is inserted into the lower and anterior part of the 
radius ; its use is to pronate the hand. 

Ques. 51. What muscle arises from the wrist and is 
inserted into the integuments of the hand ? 

Ans. The palmaris brevis. 

Ques. 52. What is its origin, insertion, and use? 

Ans. It arises from the aponeurosis palmaris and liga- 
mentum annulare ; it is inserted into the os pisiforme, 
and into the integuments covering the abductor minimi 
digiti ; its use is to aid in contracting the palm. 

Ques. 53. How many muscles arise from the wrist 
and are inserted into the thumb ? 

Ans. There are three; viz., the abductor pollicis, flexor 
ossis metacarpi pollicis, and flexor brevis pollicis. 

Ques. 54. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
abductor pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the annular ligament and os trape- 
zium ; it is inserted into the outside of the root of the first 
bone of the thumb ; its use is to draw the thumb toward 
the finger. 

Ques. 55. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor ossis metacarpi pollicis 1 

Ans. It arises from the trapezium and annular ligament 
lying under the abductor ; it is inserted anteriorly into the 



179 

lower end of the metacarpal bone of the thumb ; its use is 
to draw the thumb toward the finger. 

Ques. 56. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor brevis pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the trapezoides magnum and unci- 
forme of the carpus, being divided by the flexor longus ; 
it is inserted into the ossa sessamoidea and first bone of 
the thumb ; its use is to bend the first joint of the thumb. 

Ques. 57. What muscle arises from the wrist and is 
inserted into the fore finger ? 

Ans. The abductor indicis. 

Ques. 58. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the trapezium, and from the inside 
of the metacarpal bone of the thumb ; it is inserted into 
the outward and back part of the first bone of the index ; 
its use is to approximate the thumb and fore finger ? 

Ques. 59. How many muscles arise from the wrist, 
and are inserted into the little finger ? 

Ans. There are three, viz., the abductor minimi digiti 
manus, abducti metacarpi minimi digiti, and flexor parvus 
minimi digiti. 

Ques. 60. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the abductor minimi digiti manus ? 

Ans. It arises from the os pisiforme and annular liga- 
ment ; it is inserted into the outer side of the upper end 
of the first bone of the little finger ; its use is to draw this 
finger from the rest. 

Ques. 61. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the adductor metacarpi minimi digiti ? 

Ans. It arises from the process of the unciforme, and 
from the annular ligament ; it is inserted into the inside 
and anterior part of the metacarpal bone of the little 
finger ; its use is to draw the metacarpal bone of this 
finger toward the rest. 

Ques. 62. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the flexor parvus minimi digiti ? 



180 

Ans. It arises from the outside of the os unciforme and 
annular ligament ; it is inserted into the inner and anterior 
part of the upper end of the first bone of the little finger ; 
its use is to bend the first joint and assist the abductor. 

Ques. 63. What muscle arises from the metacarpus, 
and is inserted into the thumb 1 

Ans. The adductor pollicis. 

Ques. 64. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from all the length of the metacarpal 
bone of the middle finger ; it is inserted into the inner part 
of the root of the first bone of the thumb ; its use is to 
draw the thumb toward the fingers. 

Ques. 65. How many muscles arise from the meta- 
carpus, and are inserted into the fingers ? 

Ans. Seven, viz., the prior indicis, posterior indicis, 
prior medii, posterior medii, prior annularius, posterior 
annularius, and interosseous auricularis. 

Ques. 66. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the prior indicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the upper anterior part of the meta- 
carpal bone of the fore finger ; it is inserted into all the 
posterior part of the fore finger ; its use is to abduct the 
fore finger, to bend the first joint, and to extend the rest. 

Ques. 67. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the posterior indices ? 

Ans. It arises from the root and inner part of the meta- 
carpal bone of the fore finger ; it is inserted into all the 
posterior part of the fore finger ; its use is to abduct the 
fore finger, to bend the first joint, and to extend the rest. 

Ques. 68. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the prior medii ? 

Ans. It arises from the roots of the metacarpal bones of 
the forehand middle fingers ; it is inserted into all the 
posterior part of the middle finger ; its use is to draw the 
middle finger towards the thumb, to bend the first, and to 
extend its other joints. 



181 

Ques. 69. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the posterior medii ? 

Ans. It arises from the roots of the metacarpal bones 
that sustain the middle and ring fingers ; it is inserted into 
all the posterior part of the middle finger ; its use is to 
draw the middle finger outward, to bend its first and 
extend its other joints. 

Ques. 70, What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the prior annularis ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the root of the 
metacarpal bone of the ring finger ; it is inserted into all 
the posterior part of the ring finger ; its use is to abduct 
the ring finger, to bend its first, and to extend its other 
joints. 

Ques. 71. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the posterior annularis ? 

Ans. It arises from the roots of the metacarpal bones 
of the ring and little fingers ; it is inserted into all the 
posterior part of the ring finger ; its use is to abduct the 
ring finger, to bend its first, and to extend its other joints. 

Ques. 72. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the interosseous auricularis ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the root of the 
metacarpal bone of the little finger ; it is inserted into all 
the posterior part of the little finger ; its use is to abduct 
the little finger, to bend its first, and to extend its other 
joints. 



16 



182 



SECTION XXIL 



MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 

Ques. 1. What muscle arises from the trunk, and is 
inserted into the femur ? 

Ans. The psoas magnus. 

Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises from the side of the body and transverse 
process of the last vertebra of the back, and from the same 
parts of all the lumbar vertebrae ; it is inserted into all the 
trochanter minor of the femur, and some way below it ; 
its use is to bend the thigh, or the lumbar vertebrae upon 
the pelvis. 

Ques. 3. How many muscles arise from the pelvis, 
and are inserted into the femur ? 

Ans. Thirteen, viz., the gluteus maximus, gluteus me- 
dius, gluteus minimus, pyriformis, obturator internus, ge- 
mini, quadratus femoris, iliacus internus, pectinalis, obtu- 
rator externus, adductor longus femoris, adductor brevis 
femoris, and adductor magnus femoris. 

Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
gluteus maximus ? 

Ans, It arises from the posterior part of the crista ilii, 
from the side of the sacrum below its junction with the 
ilium, from the posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament, and 
from the os coccygis : it passes over the posterior part 
of the trochanter major, and is connected to the fascia of 
the thigh ; it is inserted into the upper and outer part of 
the linea aspera ; its use is to extend the thigh. 



183 

Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
gluteus medius ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior superior spinous pro- 
cess of the ilium, anteriorly from the outer edge of the 
spine of the ilium, and posteriorly from the dorsum of 
that bone ; it is inserted into the middle great depression 
of the trochanter major; its use is to pull the femur out- 
ward and backward, and when bended, to rotate it outward. 
\ Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
gluteus minimus ? 

Ans. It arises from a ridge extending from below the 
superior anterior spinous process of the ilium to its great 
notch ; it is inserted into the anterior great depression of 
the trochanter major ; its use is to pull the femur outward 
and backward, and to rotate it outward. 

Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
pyriformis ? 

Ans. It arises internally from the second, third, and 
fourth false vertebrae, — passing out of the pelvis it receives 
some fibres from the posterior inferior spine of the ilium ; 
it is inserted into the anterior small depression on the top 
of the trochanter major ; its use is to aid in moving the 
thigh upward, and rolling it outwards. 

Ques. 8. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
obturator internus ? 

Ans. It arises from almost all the internal circumference 
of the obturator foramen, — it passes out of the pelvis be- 
tween the tuber ischii, and the posterior sacro-ischiatic 
ligament, — passing also over the capsular ligament of the 
hip joint, it is sheathed by the gemini ; it is inserted into 
the posterior small depression on the top of the trochanter 
major ; its use is to roll the femur obliquely outward. 

Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
gemini ? 

Ans. They arise, the superior from the spine, and the 
inferior from the tuberosity of the ischium, and in their 



184 

course they form a sheath for the obturator interims ; they 
are inserted into the posterior part of the top of the tro- 
chanter major on each side of the obturator internus ; their 
use is to roll the thigh outward, and to retain the tendon 
of the obturator. 

Ques. 10. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the quadratus femoris? 

Ans. It arises from the outer edge of the tuber ischii ; 
it is inserted posteriorly into a ridge between the great 
and small trochanters ; its use is to roll the thigh outward. 

Ques. 11. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
iliacus internus ? 

Ans. It arises from all the inner lip of the spine of the 
os ilium, from most of the hollow part of the ilium, and 
also from the transverse process of the last lumbar ver- 
tebra ; it is inserted into the trochanter minor ; its use is 
to bend the thigh ? 

Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
pectinalis 1 

Ans. It arises from all the upper and anterior part of the 
os pubis ; it is inserted into the anterior upper part of the 
line a aspera ; its use is to bring the thigh upward and in- 
ward, and to rotate it in some degree outward. 

Ques, 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
obturator externus ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior anterior part of the pu- 
bis, from the forepart of the crus of the ischium, and from 
the external margin of the obturator foramen ; it is inserted 
into the cavity behind the trochanter major, adhering to 
the capsula ligament ; its use is to roll the femur outward, 
and to prevent the capsular ligament from being pinched. 

Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor longus femoris ? 

Ans. It arises from the superior anterior part of the os, 
pubis, and from its symphysis internally to the pectina- 
lis ; it is inserted near the middle of the linea aspera ; its 



185 

use is to pull the femur inward and upward, and in some 
degree to rotate it outward. 

Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor brevis femoris ? 

Ans. It arises from the pubis near its symphysis, below 
and behind the adductor longus femoris ; it is inserted into 
the upper part of the linea aspera, above the insertion of 
the adductor longus femoris ; its use is similar to that of 
the adductor longus femoris. 

Ques. 16. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor magnus femoris ? 

Ans. It arises near the symphysis, more inferiorly than 
the adductor^brevis, and from the tuber ischii ; it is inserted 
into almost all the length of the linea aspera, into the 
ridge leading from that to the internal condyle, and into 
the condyle itself ; its use is to pull the femur inward and 
upward, and in some degree to rotate it outward. 

Ques. 17. What muscle arises from the pelvis and is 
inserted into the fascia of the thigh ? 

Ans. The tensor vaginas femoris. 

Ques. 18, What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises externally from the anterior superior spi- 
nous process of the ilium ; it is inserted a little below the 
trochanter major into the inside of the fascia of the thigh ; 
its use is to stretch the fascia, to abduct the thigh, and 
rotate it outward. 

Ques. 19. How many muscles arise from the pelvis 
and are inserted into the leg? 

Ans. There are six, viz., the rectus cruris, sartorius, gra- 
cilis, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and the long 
head of the biceps. 

Ques. 20. W T hat is the orighi, insertion, and use of the 
rectus cruris ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior anterior spine of the 
ilium, and from the dorsum of the same bone ; it is inserted 
16* 



186 

into the patella, and subsequently into the anterior tuber- 
osity of the tibia ; its use is to bend the thigh and to ex- 
tend the leg-. 

Ques. 21. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
sartorius ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior superior spine of the 
ilium, and passes inwardly ; it is inserted into the inner 
anterior side of the upper end of the tibia ; its use is to- 
elevate the thigh and to turn it outward, and to bend the 
leg inwardly. 

Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the gracilis ? 

Ans. It arises from the symphysis pubis ; it is inserted 
into the tibia, behind the sartorius ; its use is to adduct 
the femur and to bend the knee. 

Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the semitendinosus ? 

Ans. It arises, conjoined with the long head of the 
biceps, from the upper part of the tuber ischii ,- it is in- 
serted into the tibia, behind the sartorius ; its use is to 
extend the thigh and bend the leg. 

Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the semimembranosus ? 

Ans. It arises from the upper part of the tuber ischii ; 
it is inserted into the inner and back part of the head of 
the tibia ; its use is to extend the thigh and to bend the leg. 

Ques. 25. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the long head of the biceps 1 

Ans. It arises conjointly with the semitendinosus from 
the upper pait of the tuber ischii ; it is inserted into the 
top of the head of the fibula ; its use is to extend the 
thigh and bend the leg. 

Ques. 26. How many muscles arise from the femur, 
and are inserted into the leg ? 

Ans. There are five, viz., the cruralis, vastus externus, 
vastus internus, the short head of the biceps, and popliteus. 



187 

Ques. 27. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the cmralis 1 

Ans. It arises from between the two trochanters of the 
femur, and is connected to the femur downward, and to 
both vasti ; it is inserted into the upper part of the pa- 
tella, and by means of its ligament into the tuberosity of 
the tibia ; its use is to extend the leg. 

Ques. 28. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the vastus externus ? 

Ans. It arises from the root of the trochanter major and 
whole length of the linea aspera; it is inserted similarly 
to the cruralis, but more externally ; its use is to extend 
the leg. 

Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the vastus internus ? 

Ans. It arises from between the root of the trochanter 
minor and anterior part of the femur, and from all the 
length of the linea aspera ; it is inserted like the cruralis, 
but more internally ; its use is to extend the leg. 

Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the short head of the biceps 1 

Ans. It arises from the linea aspera, below the insertion 
of the gluteus maximus ; it is inserted into the top of the 
head of the fibula ; its use is to bend the leg. 

Ques. 31. What is the origin, insertion, and use of 
the popliteus ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior and posterior part of 
the external condyle of the femur, adhering to the cap- 
sular ligament ; it is inserted into a ridge at the upper 
and internal part of the tibia ; its use is to bend the leg, 
and prevent the capsular ligament from being pinched. 

Ques. 32. How many muscles arise from the femur, 
and are inserted into the foot ? 

Ans. There are two : the gastrocnemius, and plantaris. 
Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
gastrocnemius ? 



188 

Ans. It arises by two heads, one from the superior and 
posterior part of the internal condyle of the femur, the 
other from the same part of the external ; it is inserted 
into the tendon of the soleus ; its use is to bend the knee 
and to aid the soleus. 

Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
plantaris ? 

Ans. It arises from the upper and back part of the root 
of the external condyle of the femur, adhering to the cap- 
sular ligament of the knee joint in its descent ; it is inserted 
into the inside of the posterior part of the os calcis, below 
the tendo-Achillis ; its use is to aid in bending the knee 
and in extending the foot, and to prevent the capsular liga- 
ment from being pinched. 

Ques. 35. How many muscles arise from the leg and 
are inserted into the foot? 

Ans. Six ; viz., the soleus, tibialis posticus, peroneus 
longus, peroneus brevis, tibialis anticus, and peroneus ter- 
tius or nonus vesalii. 

Ques. 36. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
soleus 1 

Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the head of the 
fibula, from that bone somewhat downward, and also from 
the posterior and middle part of the upper end of the tibia, 
and from the same bone more internally ; it is inserted by 
its tendon (the tendo-Achillis) into the posterior part of the 
os calcis ; its use is to extend the foot. 

Ques. 37. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
tibialis posticus ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior and upper part of the 
tibia, and (passing through the interosseous ligament) 
from the back of the fibula, from a great portion of the 
back of the tibia superiorly, and from the interosseous 
ligament ; its tendon passes in a groove behind the malle- 
olus internus ; it is inserted into the upper and inner part 
of the os naviculare, thence into the cuneiforrae internum 



189 

and medium ; its use is to extend the foot, and to turn the 
toes inward. 

Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
peroneus longus ? 

Ans. It arises anteriorly from the head, and externally 
from the body of the fibula, almost as far down as the 
ankle, its tendon passing through a groove in the posterior 
part of the lower end of the fibula on the outside of the os 
calcis, and on the inferior part of the os cuboides ; it is 
inserted into the os cuneiforme internum, and into the 
outside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe ; 
its use is to extend and to move the foot outward. 

Ques. 39. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
peroneus brevis ? 

Ans. It arises from above the middle of the external 
part of the fibula ; it is inserted externally into the root of 
the metatarsal bone of the little toe ; its use is to assist the 
peroneus longus. 

Ques. 40. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
tibialis anticus ? 

Ans. It arises from the outside of the anterior tuber- 
osity of the tibia, from the outside of the bone itself, and 
from the interosseous ligament, its tendon passing under the 
annular ligament of the tarsus ; it is inserted into the inner 
part of the os cuneiforme internum and root of the me- 
tatarsal bone of the great toe ; its use is to bend the foot 
and turn the toes inward. 

Ques. 41. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
peroneus tertius or norms vesalii 1 

Ans. It arises from the middle of the fibula, almost to 
its inferior extremity ; it is inserted into the root of the 
metatarsal bone of the little toe ; its use is to assist in 
bending the foot. 

Ques. 42. How many muscles arise from the leg and 
are inserted into the toes ? 

Ans. There are four ; viz., the extensor longus digito- 



190 

rum pedis, extensor proprius pollicis pedis, flexor iongus 
digitorum pedis profundus perforans, and flexor Iongus 
pollicis pedis. 

Ques. 43. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor Iongus digitorum pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior inner part of the head 
of the fibula, from the anterior outer part of the head of 
the tibia, from the interosseous ligament, and from the 
fascia of the leg, also from the anterior spine of the fibula ; 
it is inserted into all the phalanges of the four lesser toes ; 
its use is to bend the ankle joint, and to extend all the 
joints of the toes into which it is inserted. 

Ques. 44. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor proprius pollicis pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the fibula, some 
way below its head, to nearly its lower extremity ; it is 
inserted into the posterior part of both the bones of the 
great toe ; its use is to bend the ankle joint, and to extend 
the great toe. 

Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor Iongus digitorum pedis profundus perforans ? 

Ans. It arises from the oblique ridge on the upper back 
part of the tibia, and from the inner and outer edges of 
this bone ; enclosing the tibialis posticus by its fibres, and 
afterwards passing through a groove of the os calcis, it 
divides into four tendons which run through those of the 
perforatus ; it receives a slip of tendon from the flexor 
pollicis Iongus ; it is inserted into the extremity of the last 
joint of the four lesser toes ; its use is to extend the ankle 
joint, to turn the foot inward, and to bend the toes. 

Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor Iongus pollicis pedis ? 

Ans. It arises posteriorly from below the head of the 
fibula, being continued almost to its inferior extremity ; 
it is inserted into the posterior part of both bones of the 



191 

great toe ; its use is to extend the ankle joint and to bend 
the great toe. 

Ques. 47. How many muscles arise from the tarsus 
and metatarsus, and are inserted into the toes generally ? 

Ans. There are three; viz., the extensor brevis digito- 
rum pedis, flexor brevis digitorum pedis, and flexor digi- 
torum accessorius, or massa carnea Jacobi Sylvii. 

Ques. 48. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
extensor brevis digitorum pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior and upper part of the 
calcaneum, lying under the tendons of the extensor lon- 
gus ; it is inserted into the posterior part of all the toes, 
except the ltttle one ; its use is to extend the toes. 

Ques. 49. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor brevis digitorum pedis ? 

Ans. It arises between the abductors of the little and 
great toes, from protuberances upon the inferior posterior 
part of the calcaneum ; it is inserted by four tendons into 
the second phalanx of the four lesser toes, that of the little 
toe is sometimes wanting ; its use is to bend the first and 
second joints of the four lesser toes. 

Ques. 50. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor digitorum accessorius or massa carnea Jacobi Syl- 
vii? 

Ans. It arises from the external tuberosity of the cal- 
caneum, and from a great part of its internal concavity ; 
it is inserted by means of the tendons of the flexor longus, 
which it joins at its division ; its use is to assist the flexor 
longus. 

Ques. 51. What muscles arise from the tendons of the 
flexor longus, and are inserted into the toes ? 

Ans. The lumbricales pedis. 

Ques. 52. What is their origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. They arise by four commencements from the ten- 
don of the flexor profundus, near the insertion of the 
massa carnea, and just before its division ; they are in- 



192 

serted, by four tendons, into the internal posterior part of 
the four lesser toes ; their use is to draw the toes inward, 
and to bend their first joint and to extend the rest. 

Ques> 53. How many muscles arise from the tarsus 
and metatarsus, and are inserted into the toes ? 

Ans. There are twelve ; viz., the adductor pollicis pe- 
dis flexor, brevis pollicis, abductor pollicis pedis, adduc- 
tor minimi digiti pedis, flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis, 
abductor minimi digiti pedis, adductor indicis pedis, ab- 
ductor indicis pedis, adductor medii digiti pedis, abductor 
medii digiti pedis, adductor tertii digiti pedis, and abduc- 
tor tertii digiti pedis. 

Ques. 54. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor pollicis pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner protuberance of the calca- 
neum, and from the same bone where it joins the navicu- 
lar ; it is inserted into the os sessamoideum internum, and 
the base of the first bone of the great toe ; its use is to ad- 
duct the great toe. 

Ques. 55. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor brevis pollicis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inferior anterior part of the cal- 
caneum where it joins the cuboides, and from the cunei- 
forme externum, being internally connected with the 
abductor and adductor ; it is inserted into the os sessa- 
moideum externum, and base of the first bone of the great 
toe ; its use is to bend the first joint of the great toe. 

Ques. 56. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
abductor pollicis pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the calcaneum, cuboides, cuneiforme 
externum, and the base of the metatarsal bone of the second 
toe ; it is inserted into the os sessamoideum externum, 
and the base of the metatarsal bone of the great toe ; its 
use is to abduct the great toe. 

Ques. 57. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor minimi digiti pedis ? 



193 

Ans, It arises from the inside of the root of the meta- 
tarsal bone of the little toe ; it is inserted into the inside 
of the base of the first bone of the little toe ; its use is to 
adduct the little toe. 

Ques. 58. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the cuboides near the groove of the 
peroneus longus, and from the outside of its own metatarsal 
bone ; it is inserted into the top of the metatarsal bone, and 
base of the first bone of the little toe ; its use is to bend 
the first joint of the little toe. 

Ques. 59. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
abductor minimi digiti pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from before the external protuberance of 
the calcaneum, and from the root of the metatarsal bone of 
the little toe ; it is inserted into the base of the first bone 
of the little toe ; its use is to abduct the little toe. 

Ques. 60. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor indicis pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inside of the base of the meta- 
tarsal bone of the second toe, from the outside of the base 
of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from the cunei- 
forme internum ; it is inserted into the inside of the base 
of the first bone of the second toe ; its use is to adduct the 
second toe. 

' Ques. 61. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
abductor indicis pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the base of the metatarsal bones of 
the second and third toes ; it is inserted into the outside of 
the second toe ; its use is to abduct the second toe. 

Ques. 62. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor medii digiti pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inside of the base of the meta- 
tarsal bone of the middle toe ; it is inserted into the inside 
17 



194 

of the base of the first bone of the middle toe ; its use is to 
adduct the middle toe. 

Ques. 63. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
abductor medii digiti pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the bases of the metatarsal bones of 
the second and third toes ; it is inserted into the outside 
of the base of the first bone of the second toe ; its use is 
to abduct the second toe. 

Ques. 64. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
adductor tertii digiti pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner and under part of the base 
of the metatarsal bone of the third toe ; it is inserted into 
the inside of the base of the first bone of the third toe ; its 
use is to adduct the third toe. 

Ques. 65. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the 
abductor tertii digiti pedis ? 

Ans. It arises from the roots of the metatarsal bones of 
the third and little toes ; it is inserted into the outside of 
the base of the first bone of the third toe ; its use is to ab- 
duct the third toe. 

Ques. 66. What muscle arises from one bone of the 
metatarsus and is inserted into another ? 

Ans. The trans versalis pedis. 

Ques. 67. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? 

Ans. It arises inferiorly from the anterior end of the 
metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from its os sesamoi- 
deum internum ; it is inserted inferiorly and externally 
into the anterior end of the metatarsal bone of the little 
toe, and the ligament of the next one ; its use is to con- 
tract the foot from side to side. 



195 



SECTION XXIII. 



BURSjE mucosa. 



Ques. 1. What are the bursse mucosae 1 

Ans. They are mucous bags of a delicate transparent 
texture, and whose internal surfaces are lubricated by a 
synovial fluid. 

Ques. 2. What are their use ? 

Ans. They answer the purpose of friction bags, allow- 
ing the ready play of tendons over bone, &c. 

Ques. 3. Where are they generally situated ? 

Ans. They are chiefly situated in the extremities be- 
tween tendons which rub against each other ; or where 
they play on the surface of bones or joints, and between 
the integuments and certain prominent points of bone, 
viz., at the knee, elbow, and knuckles. 

Ques. 4. What is their structure ? 

Ans. The structure of the membrane which forms them 
is similar to that of the synovial membranes of joints. 

Ques. 5. How are they connected with the surround- 
ing parts ? 

Ans. They adhere with great firmness to the parts be- 
twixt which they lie. 

Ques. 6. What is their internal arrangement ? 

Ans. Their internal surfaces are in contact, and are 
only lubricated by the synovial fluid which is formed in 
them. 



196 
SECTION XXIV. 

FASCIA. 

Ques. 1. What are the fascia '■ 

Ans. They are tendinous expansions which brace and 
protect the muscles whilst in action, and support the form 
of parts ; they are sometimes called aponeuroses. 

Ques. 2. Enumerate the most important fascia. 

Ans. The temporal fascia, the fascia of the arm, the 
fascia of the forearm, the palmar fascia, the femoral fascia, 
the fascia of the leg. and the plantar fascia. 

Ones. 3. What are the attachments of the temporal 
fascia ? 

Ans. It is attached to the temporal ridges of the os 
frontis and os parietalia, and the upper edge of the zygoma 
and posterior edge of the os malae, and temporal process 
of the os frontis. 

Ques. 4. What is the texture of the fascia of the arm I 

Ans. It is much thinner than that of the forearm, from 
which it receives a considerable addition. 

Ques. 5. From what is the fascia of the forearm prin- 
cipally derived ? 

Ans. The tendon of the biceps. 

Ques. 6. Whence is the palmar fascia derived \ 

Ans. From the internal annular ligament, and the ten- 
don of the palmaris longus, 

Ques. T. Whence is the femoral fascia derived I 

Ans. From the tensor vaginae femoris, and ginl 
maximus ; it is also called the fascia lata of the thigh. 

Ques. S. Where are the fasciae of the extremities 
strongest ? 

Ans. On the inner and anterior part of the forearm : and 
the fascia lata exceeds all others in density at the ou;er 
part of the thigh. 



^_^_^^— 



197 



SPLANCHNOLOGY. 



Ques. 1. What is splanchnology? 

Ans. Splanchnology treats of the structure of the vis- 
cera and organs of the senses. 

Ques. 2. Where are the viscera chiefly situated ? 

Ans. In the great cavities of the body. 

Ques. 3. What are the names of the great cavities of 
the body ? 

Ans. The cranium, the thorax, and the abdomen. 



SECTION XXV. 



THORACIC VISCERA. 



Ques, 1. What is the situation of the thorax ? 

Ans. It is placed between the neck and the abdomen. 

Ques. 2. How is it formed ? 

Ans. The hard parts composing it are the dorsal verte- 
brae, the ribs, and the sternum ; the soft parts are the 
pleura, the intercostal muscles, and the diaphragm. 

17* 



198 

Ques. 3. What is its general form 1 

Ans. It is of a conical figure. 

Ques. 4. What are the viscera of the thorax ? 

Ans. The pleura, the thymus gland, the heart and 
great vessels, the pericardium, the lungs, and the oeso- 
phagus. 

Pleura. 

Ques. 5. What is the situation of the pleura ? 

Ans. It lines the cavity of the thorax, and closely in- 
vests the lungs. 

Ques. 6. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It is a thin, transparent membrane ; its outer 
surface is adherent to the thorax and lungs ; its inner 
surface is smooth and lubricated. 

Ques. 7. What is the use of this membrane ? 

Ans. Its use is to afford a smooth and firm covering to 
the lungs, and a lining to the cavity of the thorax, and to 
subdivide this into two cavities. 

Ques. 8. What is the name of the duplicative of the 
pleura ? 

Ans. The mediastinum. 

Ques. 9. How is the mediastinum formed ? 

Ans. The portions of the pleura which line the pari- 
eties of the thorax on each side meet behind the sternum, 
unite, and forming a double membrane are reflected 
directly backwards ; they then separate to invest the 
heart, pericardium, and great vessels ; they give off the 
covering to the lungs ; and then behind the heart they 
agam approach each other and pass to the bodies of the 
vertebra?, so that in fact there are two pleurae, one for each 
side. 

Ques. 10. What cavities are situated between the 
dupUcatures of the pleurae ? 



I 



199 

Ans. There are three, viz., the anterior, posterior, and 
middle cavities of the mediastinum. 

Ques. 11. What is contained in the anterior cavity? 

Ans. The thymus gland in the foetus. 

Ques. 12. What does the middle cavity contain ? 

Ans. The heart and pericardium. 

Ques. 13. What does the posterior cavity contain? 

Ans. The bronchia, oesophagus, descending aorta and 
beginning of the intercostal arteries, the descending cava, 
the vena azygos, the thoracic duct, the par vagum, and 
great sympathetic nerve. 

Ques. 14. To what part of the sternum is the medi- 
astinum attached ? 

Ans. To the posterior part, a little to the left side. 

Ques. 15. What names have been given to other parts 
of the pleura ? 

Ans. That part of the pleura which covers the lungs 
has been called pleura pulmonalis ; where it lines the 
thorax, pleura costalis ; and its outer surface, its cellular 
portion. 

Ques. 16. How is the inner surface moistened ? 

Ans. It is lubricated by a serous fluid, which transudes 
from its pores. 

Ques. 17. From whence are the arteries of the pleura 
derived ? 

Ans. Chiefly from the intercostals and bronchial. 
Ques. 18. Whither do the veins of the pleura pass ? 

Ans. They pass to those which correspond with the 
arteries in name and distribution. 

Ques. 19. From whence are its nerves derived? 
Ans. From the intercostals. 



Thymus Gland, 

Ques. 20. What is the situation of the thymus 
gland ? 



200 



Ans. It is situated in the superior part of the anterior 
cavity of the mediastinum. 

Ques. 21. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is of an oblong figure, having two processes 
above and two below. 

Ques. 22. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It has the appearance of a glandular structure. 

Ques. 23. Is the thymus gland largest in the foetus or 
in the adult ? 

Ans. In the foetus it is of considerable size ; in the 
adult there hardly remains a vestige of it. 

Ques. 24. What is its use ? 

Ans. Its use, (which is unknown,) appears to be con- 
fined to the fcetal state. 

Pericardium. 

Ques. 25. What is the pericardium ? 

Ans. It is a firm membranous bag. 

Ques. 26. What is its situation 1 

Ans. It surrounds the heart. 

Ques. 27. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat conical, corresponding to the 
figure of the heart. 

Ques. 28. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It consists of three laminae, of which the middle 
one is composed of dense tendinous filaments ; the inner 
one is a continuation of the outer coat of the heart ; and 
the outer one is derived from the pleura. 

Ques. 29. What are its connections ? 

Ans. It adheres firmly to the tendinous part of the 
diaphragm, and to the great vessels at the base of the 
heart, the beginning of which it includes within its 
cavity. 

Ques. 30. How is the inner surface of the pericardium 
moistened ? 



_ 



201 

Ans. It is lubricated by a serous fluid, transuding from 
the exhalents. 

Ques. 31. What is this fluid called? 

Ans. It is called the liquor pericardii ; the condensation 
and accumulation of this fluid, which takes place after 
death, affords a sensible quantity of it. 

Heart. 

Ques. 32. What is the heart? 

Ans. It is a hollow muscular organ, which receives the 
blood from, and transmits it to, all the parts of the body. 

Ques. 33. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is invested by the pericardium, and is situated 
between the lungs, and rests on the superior part of the 
diaphragm. 

Ques. 34. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat of a conical form, flattened how- 
ever on its inferior surface and rounded at its upper part. 

Ques. 35. How is the heart divided externally ? 

Ans. It is divided into a basis, turned backwards and 
upwards ; an apex, pointing forward and to the left side ; 
a rounded edge to the right, a more acute edge to the 
left ; a superior convex surface, and an inferior flat sur- 
face. 

Ques. 36. What are its divisions internally ? 

Ans. It is divided internally into four cavities, viz., 
two auricles at its base, and two ventricles forming its body. 

Ques. 37. What communications exist between the 
cavities of the heart ? 

Ans. There is no communication betwixt the two 
auricles, nor any betwixt the two ventricles'; but the right 
auricle communicates with the right ventricle, and there is 
a similar opening between the left auricle and the left 
ventricle ; the two sides of the heart are therefore distinct. 

Ques, 38. What is the use of the auricles ? 



202 

Ans. They receive the blood from the great venous 
trunks which are fixed to them, and transmit it to the 
ventricle. 

Ques. 39. What is the use of the ventricles ? 

Ans. They have each a large artery into which they 
propel the blood. 

Right Auricle. 

Ques. 40. What is the situation of the right auricle ? 

Ans. It is situated toward the anterior part of the base 
of the heart. 

Ques. 41. How is it divided from the left auricle 1 

Ans. By the septum auricularum. 

Ques. 42. What are the musculi pectinati ? 

Ans. They are transverse fleshy fibres on the sides of 
the auricle. 

Ques. 43. What veins open into the right auricle 1 

Ans. The two venae cavae and the coronary vein. 

Ques. 44. What is the appendix to the auricle ? 

Ans. There is an irrrgular appendix of the auricle 
communicating with its cavity. 

Ques. 45. Where does the vena cava superior open 
into the right auricle ? 

Ans. Into its upper posterior part. 

Ques. 46. Where does the inferior cava enter? 

Ans. Into its lower posterior part. 

Ques. 47. Where is the tuberculum Loweri situated ? 

Ans. It is an angular projection between the mouths of 
the two cava. 

Ques. 48. Where does the coronary vein enter the 
right auricle ? 

Ans. Towards the inner and inferior part. 

Ques. 49. How is the mouth of the coronary vein pro- 
tected ? 

Ans. By a considerable semilunar valve. 



203 

Ques. 50. What is the valve of Eustachius ? 
Ans. It is a fold of the inner membrane, situated to the 
left of the opening of the inferior cava. 

Right Ventricle, 

Ques. 51. What is the situation of the right ventricle ? 

Ans. It is situated at the anterior part of the right side 
of the heart. 

Ques. 52. Is the right or left ventricle the largest ? 

Ans. The right is larger than the left, though its parie- 
tes are thinner. 

Ques. 53. What are the columnae carneae ? 

Ans. They are fleshy pillars, by the contraction of 
which the valves of the ventricles are closed. 

Ques. 54. What are the corda tendinae ? 

Ans. They are the tendons of the columnae carneae by 
which they are connected to the edges of the valves. 

Ques. 55. How is the communication between the 
right auricle and ventricle protected ? 

Ans. By the tricuspid valve. 

Ques. 56. What is the construction of this valve ? 

Ans. It is a tendinous curtain fixed around the circular 
opening into the ventricle ; its opposite edge presents three 
points, which are connected to the sides of the ventricle 
by tendinous cords. 

Ques. 57. What is the use of this valve ? 

Ans. When the ventricle contracts, this valve prevents 
the blood from returning into the auricle. 

Ques. 58. What artery arises from the right ventricle ? 

Ans. The pulmonary artery, at its upper and left side. 

Ques. 59. How is the mouth of the pulmonary artery- 
protected ? 

Ans. It is guarded by three semilunar valves. 

Ques. 60. What is the particular form of the semilu- 
nar valves ? 



204 

Ans. The loose edge of each resembles two small cres- 
cents, uniting in a middle papilla, called corpus sesamoi- 
deum aurantii. 

Ques. 61. What is the use of these valves ? 

Ans. They support the column of blood in the artery, 
and prevent its returning into the ventricle. 

Left Auricle. 

Ques. 62. Where is the left auricle situated ? 

Ans. At the superior and posterior part of the left side 
of the heart. 

Ques. 63. What difference is there in the size of the 
left auricle from that of the right ? 

Ans. The left is smaller than the right, but its sides 
are thicker. 

Ques. 64. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It resembles that of the right auricle. 

Ques. 65. What veins open into the left auricle ? 

Ans. The four pulmonary veins. 

Left Ventricle. 

Ques. 66. What is the situation of the left ventricle ? 

Ans. It is situated at the posterior and left part of the 
heart. 

Ques. 67. What is its general structure ? 

Ans. It is similar to that of the right. 

Ques. 68. How is the communication between the 
left auricle and ventricle protected ? 

Ans. The mitral valve is placed at this communication. 

Ques. 69. What is the construction of the mitral valve? 

Ans. It resembles the tricuspid in situation, use, and 
structure, and differs from it only in being divided into 
two portions only ; which has occasioned it to be com- 
pared to a bishop's mitre. 



205 

Ques. 70. What artery arises from the left ventricle ? 

Ans, The aorta, which is situated at its upper and fore 
part. 

Ques. 71. How is the mouth of the aorta protected ? 

Ans. By three semilunar valves. 

Ques. 72. What is the structure and use of the semi- 
lunar valves of the aorta ? 

Ans. Their structure and use exactly correspond with 
those of the pulmonary artery. 

Arteries, Veins, and Nerves of the Heart. 

Ques. 73. Whence are the coronary arteries derived ? 

Ans. They arise from the commencement of the aorta, 
immediately behind its semilunar valves. 

Ques. 74. What is the course and distribution of 
these arteries? 

Ans. That which supplies the right side runs between 
the right auricle and ventricle ; the left passes between 
the pulmonary artery and left ventricle, and divides into 
branches. 

Ques. 75. Where do the coronary veins terminate ? 

Ans. They open into the right auricle. 

Ques. 76. From whence are the nerves of the heart 
derived ? 

Ans. From the cardiac plexus. 

Trachea. 

Ques. 77. What is the situation of the trachea ? 

Ans. It is situated anteriorly in the lower part of the 
neck, and in the thorax behind the thymus gland, and 
between the two pleurae in the space left superiorly be- 
tween the duplicature of the mediastinum. 

Ques. 78. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is of a tubular form, flattened posteriorly. 
18 



206 

Ques. 79. What is the structure of the trachea ! 

Ans. It consists anteriorly of segments of cartilaginous 
circles, forming an incomplete canal, which is membranous 
posteriorly. 

Ques. 80. Into what does the trachea divide ? 

Ans. At its termination it divides into two tubes of 
similar structure, called bronchia? . 

Ques. 81. AVhere does this division take place I 

Ans. Behind the curvature of the aorta. 

Ques. 82. With what is the trachea lined ? 

Ans. By a very irritable mucous membrane. 

Ques. 83. How many coats has the trachea ? 

Ans. Four, including the internal lining. 

Ques. 84. Whence is the external coat derived I 

Ans. It is a continuation of the cellular covering of the 
lungs. 

Ques. 85. What is the second coat ? 

Ans. It is the internal perichondrium to its cartilages. 

Ques. 86. What forms the third coat ? 

Ans. It has been supposed to be muscular ; it completes 
the circumference of the cartilaginous circles. 

Lungs. 

Ques. 87. Where are the lungs situated? 

Ans. They are situated in the cavity of the thorax, 
which they chiefly till. 

Ques. 88. What is their general form ! 

Ans. They are adapted to the cavity which contain 
them, being convex, next the ribs, concave next the dia- 
phragm, and irregularly formed next the mediastinum and 
heart. 

Ques. 89. Into what portions are the lungs divided ? 

Ans.- They consist of two great lateral parts, or a right 
and a left lung, having between them the heart and 



207 

mediastinum ; the right lung is subdivided into three lobes, 
and the left into two. 

Ques. 90. In what part of the lungs is the notch occa- 
sioned by the apex of the heart ? 

Ans. At the lower edge of the left lung 

Ques. 91. What is the structure of the lungs ? 

Ans. They are almost entirely of a spongy texture, con- 
sisting of an immense number of small membranous cells. 

Ques. 92. By what membrane is the lungs invested ? 

Ans. The pleura pulmonalis. 

Ques. 93. Where do the bronchiae ramify ? 

Ans. Within the substance of the lungs. 

Ques. 94. What is their form ? 

Ans. They are conical tubes ; they divide, and sub- 
divide. 

Ques. 95. What structure do the minute ramifications 
of the bronchiae assume ? 

Ans. They become membranous. 

Ques. 96. Where do they terminate ? 

Ans. In the vesiculae bronchialis, or air cells. 

Ques. 97. How are the air cells connected ? 

Ans. In bundles. 

Ques. 98. What are these bundles termed? 

Ans. Lobuli. 

Ques. 99. What is the structure of the bronchiae. 

Ans. In structure they resemble the trachea. 

Ques. 100. What is the relative situation of the bron- 
chial vessels to the branches of the pulmonary artery 
and vein ? 

Ans. A branch of the bronchia generally lies between 
one of the pulmonary arteries and pulmonary vein. 

Ques. 101. What is the interlobular substance ? 

Ans. It is the cellular or spongy substance which sur- 
rounds the lobuli, and connects them together. 

Ques. 102. What effect is produced by inflating the 
interlobular substance ? 



208 

Ans. If this be inflated, the lobuli are compressed and 
flattened. 



Arteries, Feins, and Xerves of the Lungs. 

Ques. 103. What are the blood vessels of the lungs ? 

Ans. They are of two kinds. — one common, called 
the pulmonary artery and veins ; the other proper, called 
the bronchial arteries and veins. 

Ques. 104. How is the pulmonary artery rammed in 
the lungs ? 

Ans. It divides into two branches, one for each lungf ; 
they take the same course as the bronchiae, and ramifying: 
on the surfaces of the bronchial cells, they form a beautiful 
plexus, called the rete mirabile of Malpighi. 

Ques. 105. Which are the nutrient arteries of the 
lungs ! 

Ans. The bronchial arteries. 

Ques. 106. What veins receive the blood of the bron- 
chial arteries ? 

Ans. The bronchial veins. 

Ques. 107. Whither do the bronchial veins pass \ 

Ans. They pass irregularly, either to the vena azygos 
or guttural vein. 

Ques. 103. What blood do the pulmonary veins re- 
ceive ? 

Ans. The blood from the pulmonary arteries. 

Ques. 109. How many pulmonary veins are there • 

Ans. There are four; two for each lung. 

Ques. 110. Whither do they pass ? 

Ans. To the left auricle of the heart. 

Ques, 111. Whence are the nerves of the lungs de- 
rived ! 

Ans. From the eighth pair, and great sympathetic. 



209 



Bronchial Glands. 

Ques. 112. Where are the bronchial glands situated? 

Ans. They are situated about the termination of the 
trachea and beginning of the bronchiae. 

Ques. 113* What is their appearance? 

Ans. They are of various sizes, and usually of a motley 
blue appearance. 

Ques. 114. To what kind of glands do the bronchial 
belong ? 

Ans. They are sympathetic glands, connected with the 
absorbent vessels of the lungs. 



SECTION XXVI. 



CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 

Ques. 1. How is the circulation of the blood effected ? 

Ans. By the alternate contraction of the auricles and 
ventricles, called the diastole and systole of the heart. 

Ques. 2. What is the diastole of the heart ? 

Ans. The diastole is the dilatation of the ventricles, oc- 
casioned by the contractions of the auricles on their con- 
tents. 

Ques. What is the systole of the heart ? 
18* 



210 

Ans, It is the contraction of the ventricles, by which 
the blood they contain is propelled through all the arte- 
ries. 

Ques. 4. Describe the course of the blood. 

Ans. The blood being returned by the superior vena 
cava from the upper part of the body, and by the inferior 
vena cava from the lower part, is emptied into the right 
auricle : this contracts and discharges its contents into the 
right ventricle : when completely filled the right ventricle 
contracts : by that contraction its tricuspid valve is shut, 
and its contents propelled through the ramifications of the 
pulmonary artery in the lungs. The blood is returned by 
the four pulmonary veins into the left auricle, which, be- 
ing distended, now contracts and throws its blood into the 
left ventricle ; the left ventricle then also contracts, its mi- 
tral valve shuts, and all its blood is propelled through the 
aorta into the capillary vessels of the system : these capil- 
laries possess a power of suction, which gives impetus to 
the blood. It is again returned by the veins into the two 
vens cava? and the right auricle, to undergo precisely the 
same process. The mouths of the aorta and pulmonary 
artery being each protected by three semilunar valves, the 
blood is prevented passing back from them into the ven- 
tricles. 

Ques. 5. What sensible change is produced on the 
blood in the lungs ? 

Ans. The venous blood, which is brought to the ricrht 
side of the heart, is of a dark purple hue ; during its pas- 
sage through the lunsrs, it attracts oxygen from the air in 
the bronchial cells, and gives out a quantity of carbonic 
acid gas ; when returned to the left auricle, it is found of 
a bright florid red. 



211 



SECTION XXVIL 



RESPIRATION. 

4 



Ques. 1. What is respiration ? 

Ans. Respiration consists in inhaling and exhaling the 
atmospherical air to and from the lungs, or in inspiration 
and expiration. 

Ques. 2. How is inspiration performed ? 

Ans. The diaphragm contracting descends, and the ribs 
are raised ; thus the cavity of the thorax is suddenly en- 
larged, which occasions air to rush in at the trachea, and 
fills the cells of the lungs. 

Ques. 3. How is expiration performed ? 

Ans. Expiration is effected by the relaxation and con- 
sequent ascent of the diaphragm, and descent of the ribs ; 
the capacity of the thorax being thus diminished, the air 
is expelled from the lungs. 



SECTION XXVIII. 



ABDOMINAL VISCERA. 



Ques. 1. Where is the abdomen situated? 
Ans. Between the thorax and pelvis. 



212 



Ques. 2. How is the cavity of the abdomen formed? 

Ans. It is bounded above by the diaphragm and the 
margin of the chest ; behind by the five lumbar vertebrae ; 
below by the pelvis ; anteriorly and laterally by the ab- 
dominal muscles. 

Ques. 3. Into how many regions is the abdomen di- 
vided ? 

Ans. It is divided into three regions ; a superior or epi- 
gastric-region, a middle or umbilical region, and an infe- 
rior or hypogastric region. 

Ques. 4. Describe the epigastric region. 

Ans. The epigastric region is all that part which is 
situated above a line passing from the last rib on one side 
across the abdomen to the last rib on the other side. 

Ques. 5. How is this region subdivided ? 

Ans. It is divided into three other regions ; viz., the 
scrobiculus cordis or epigastrium in the middle, and the 
two hypochondria on each side, under the edge of the 
false ribs. 

Ques. 6. What are the boundaries of the umbilical re- 
gion ? 

Ans. It extends equally above and below the navel, be- 
tween the other two. 

Ques. 7. How is the umbilical region subdivided ? 

Ans. It is divided into its middle or umbilicus, two 
lateral regions called ilia, and posteriorly the regis lum- 
borum. 

Ques. 8. What are the boundaries of the hypogastric 
region ? 

Ans. It is all that part below a line extending from the 
superior and anterior spinous process of the ilii. 

Ques. 9. How is the hypogastric region subdivided? 

Ans. Its middle is called the regio-pubis ; its sides the 
inguinal regions. 

Ques. 10. What membrane lines the cavity of the 
abdomen ? 



213 

Ans. A thin membrane called the peritoneum. 

Ques. 11. What are the contents of the abdomen? 

Ans. Besides the peritoneum it contains the organs of 
digestion and chylification, viz. the stomach, intestines, 
liver, spleen, and pancreas : the urinary organs, viz. the 
kidneys, ureters, and bladder : and lastly, part of the or- 
gans of generation. 

Peritoneum, 

Ques. 12. What is the situation of the peritoneum ? 

Ans. It adheres to the inner surface of the abdominal 
cavity ; it is reflected over, invests, and supports the vis- 
cera. 

Ques. 13. What is its structure? 

Ans. It is a thin membrane, resembling the pleura in 
structure. 

Ques. 14. What is the appearance of the outer sur- 
face of the peritoneum ? l 

Ans. Its outer surface is cellular, and is adherent to 
the surfaces of the viscera, with which it is in contact. 

Ques. 15. What is the appearance of its inner surface ? 

Ans. It is very smooth and polished. 

Ques. 16. How is the peritoneum moistened ? 

Ans. By a serous fluid, discharged from exhalent 
vessels. 

Ques. 17. What are the duplicatures of the peri- 
toneum ? 

Ans. They are very extensive and numerous ; after 
having completely invested an organ, the peritoneum 
passes double to the parieties of the abdomen, to be here 
expanded ; these duplicatures confine the organs in their 
places, and support them. They are sometimes called 
ligaments ; the extensive one which supports the intes- 
tines, is called the mesentery ; and a very large one, 
hanging loose before the intestines, is called the omentum. 



214 



Ques. 18. What are the processes of the peritoneum ? 

Ans. They are elongations, which accompany parts in 
their exit from the cavity of the abdomen. 

Ques. 19. What ligamentous cords are seen upon the 
anterior surface of the peritoneum ? 

Ans. There are four ; they are the remains of parts 
peculiar to the foetus, viz., the two umbilical arteries, the 
umbilical vein and the uiachus. 



Stomach. 

Ques. 20. What is the stomach ? 

Ans. The stomach is a membranous bag, into which 
the food is received, and where it is digested. 

Ques. 21. Where is it situated? 

Ans. It is situated in the left hypochondrium, and in the 
epigastriurr 

Ques. 22. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is oblong and incurvated, large at one end and 
small at the other. 

Ques. 23. Where is its greater extremity ? 

Ans. It is situated toward the left side. 

Ques. 24. Where is its lesser extremity ? 

Ans. Towards the right side. 

Ques. 25. Where is its lesser curvature situated? 

Ans. It forms a small curvature superiorly, which is 
turned rather backward when the stomach is full. 

Ques. 26. Where is the greater curvature situated ? 

Ans. It is placed inferiorly when empty, rather ante- 
riorly when full. 

Ques. 27. How many openings has the stomach ? 

Ans. It has two. 

Ques. 28. What are they called ? 

Ans. One is called the cardia, the other the pylorus. 

Ques. 29. Where is the cardia situated ? 



215 

Ans. It is placed at its superior part, at a little dis- 
tance from its greater extremity. 

Ques. 30. What is the situation of the pylorus ? 

Ans. It is placed at the termination of its lesser ex- 
tremity, and at the beginning of the intestines. 

Ques. 31. What is the relative situation of the cardia 
and pylorus ? 

Ans. The pylorus is situated lower, and turned more 
forward than the cardia. 

Ques. 32. How many coats has the stomach ? 

Ans. Four. 

Ques. 33. What are the names of these coats 1 

Ans. They are the peritoneal, the muscular, the ner- 
vous, and the villous coats. 

Ques. 34. What is the situation of the peritoneal coat ? 

Ans. It is the most external ; it is smooth and lubri- 
cated. 

Ques. 35. Where is the muscular coat ? 

Ans. Immediately within the peritoneal. 

Ques. 36. Of how many planes of fibres does the 
muscular coat consist ? 

Ans. Two ; an external and an internal. 

Ques. 37. What is the course of the external plane of 
fibres ? 

Ans. The external plane is longitudinal. 

Ques. 38. What is the course of the internal plane ? 

Ans. The internal plane of fibres run circularly trans- 
verse. 

Ques. 39. Where is the nervous coat situated ? 

Ans. Immediately within the muscular coat. 

Ques. 40. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It is cellular or filiamentary, containing numerous 
small glands. 

Ques. 41. What is the situation of the villous coat? 

Ans. It is the most internal coat of the stomach. 

Ques. 42. What is its structure ? 



216 

Ans. It somewhat resembles the pile of velvet, and is 
very vascular. 

Ques. 43. How are the rugae of the stomach formed ? 

Ans. The two internal coats of the stomach, being 
more extensive than the external, are thrown into folds 
called rugae. 

Ques. 44. What is the direction of these rugae ? 

Ans. They are chiefly placed in a transvere direction. 

Ques. 45. From whence are the nerves of the stomach 
derived ? 

Ans. From the eighth pair, and great sympathetic, 

Ques. 46. From whence are the arteries of the sto- 
mach derived ? 

Ans. They come from the caeliac. 

Ques. 47. Whence do the veins pass ? 

Ans. They go to the vena portae. 



Intestines. 

Ques. 48. What are the intestines? 

Ans. They are a long membranous tube, beginning at 
the pylorus, and ending at the anus. 

Ques. 49. How are they divided ? 

Ans. They are divided into the large and small intes- 
tines ; the small being subdivided into the duodenum, 
jejunum, and ilium- — and the large into the ccecum, colon, 
and rectum. 

Duodenum. 

Ques. 50. Where is the duodenum situated ? 
Ans. It is situated immediately below the pylorus. 
Ques. 51. What is its length ? 
Ans. It is about twelve fingers breadth in length, as its 
name imports. 



217 

Ques. 52. What is its course 1 

Ans. It first bends a little backward and downward, 
then towards the right kidney, and thence it passes 
before the renal artery and vein, gradually ascending to 
the left, before the aorta and the last dorsal vertebrae ; it 
then continues its course a little forward, making a small 
turn. 

Ques. 53. How is the duodenum fixed ? 

Ans. It is retained in its situation by the folds of the 
peritoneum, and especially by a transverse duplicature, 
which gives origin to the meso-colon. 

Ques. 54. How many coats has the duodenum ? 

Ans. It, with all the rest of the small intestines, have 
four coats, resembling those of the stomach. 

Ques. 55. What is peculiar to the peritoneal coat of 
the duodenum ? 

Ans. It does not invest the whole circumference of the 
intestine. 

Ques. 56. What is the peculiarity of the muscular 
coat of this intestine ? 

Ans. It is thicker than in the jejunum and ilium. 

Ques. 57. What is the peculiar disposition of the ner- 
vous and villous coats of the small intestines ? 

Ans. The nervous and villous coats of the small intes- 
tines are much more extensive than the other two, and 
are thrown into folds called valvulae conniventes. 

Ques. 58. What is the form of the valvulae conni- 
ventes ? 

Ans. They resemble portions of circular plains, having 
one edge fixed to the intestine and the other loose. 

Ques. 59. In what intestines are the valvulae conni- 
ventes largest and most frequent ? 

Ans. In the duodenum they are small, but grow much 
larger and more numerous in the jejunum, and again de- 
crease in the ilium. 

19 



218 

Ques. 60. How do the villi of the duodenum differ 
from those of the jejunum ? 

Ans. They are much less conspicuous in the duodenum 
than in the jejunum. 

Ques. 61. Where do the biliary and pancreatic ducts 
open into the duodenum ? 

Ans. On the short side of its first incurvation there is 
an opening, which is the common aperture of the excre- 
tory duct of the liver and of the pancreas* 



Jejunum and Ilium. 

Ques. 62. How is the termination of the jejunum dis- 
tinguished from the beginning of the ilium ? 

Ans. There is no mark of distinction between the ter- 
mination of the jejunum and the beginning of the ilium ; 
this division is therefore arbitrary. It is usual to consider 
the superior two-fifths as the jejunum and the remainder 
as the ilium. 

Ques. 63. What is the course of the jejunum 1 

Ans. The jejunum, beginning at the duodenum, bends 
from left to right and obliquely forward, making several 
convolutions ; it lies chiefly in the upper part of the um- 
bilical region. 

Ques. 64. How do the valvulse conniventes of the 
jejunum differ from those of the duodenum and ilium ? 

Ans. Those of the jejunum are more prominent, loose, 
and floating than in the duodenum, and they gradually 
diminish in the ilium. 

Ques. 65. What glands are found in the jejunum and 
ilium ? 

Ans. The glands of Peyer and Brunner. They exist 
in irregular clusters. 

Ques. 66. Where are they most numerous ? 

Ans. Towards the end of the ilium. 



219 



Ccecum. 

Ques. 67. What is the ccecum ? 

Ans. The ccecum or blind gut is a short, roomy pouch, 
into which the ilium opens. 

Ques. 68. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is situated under the right kidney upon the 
iliacus internus ; its bottom being turned downward. 

Ques. 69. What is the appendix of the ccecum named ? 

Ans. A worm-like body is fixed to it, called appendix 
cceci vermiformis. 

Ques. 70. Where does the appendix cceci vermiformis 
open into the ccecum ? 

Ans. On the inner side of its bottom ; its other extre- 
mity is impervious. 

Ques. 71. What is its size ? 

Ans. Its diameter is about a quarter of an inch, and it 
is about three inches long. 

Ques. 72. What is its structure ? 

Ans. In structure it resembles very closely the intes- 
tines. 

Ques. 73. What is its use ? 

Ans. Its use is not understood ; it has been thought by 
some to secrete the odorous matter of the excrement, 



Colon. 

Ques. 74. What is the situation of the colon ? 

Ans. The colon forms the greater part of the large in- 
testines ; it is situated around the small ones, beginning 
at the ccecum and ending at the rectum. 

Ques. 75. What is its course ? 

Ans. It ascends in the right iliac region ; it then forms 
the great arch above the umbilical region, crossing from 
the right kidney to the lower part of the left hypochon- 



220 

drium ; this arch is situated immediately below the liver, 
gall, bladder, and stomach ; thence the colon turns back 
under the spleen, runs before the left kidney, turns 
towards the vertebrae, and terminates by a double incur- 
vation. 

Ques. 76. What is this incurvation called? 

Ans. It is called its sigmoid flexure. 

Ques. 77. What guards the opening of the small into 
the large intestines ? 

Ans. At the termination of the ilium a pair of valves 
are situated, called valvulae coli, or valvulae cceci, or val- 
vules ilii. 

Ques. 78. What is the form of this opening ? 

Ans. It resembles a fissure, its middle being most open. 

Ques. 79. What is the structure of the large intestines ? 

Ans. The colon, as well as the ccecum and rectum, has 
die same number and kind of coats as the small intestines. 

Ques. 80. What is the character of the muscular coat 
of the large intestines ? 

Ans. The longitudinal fibres of the muscular coat are 
collected into three distinct bundles, called the longitudinal 
bands, beginning at the ccecum ; besides these, there are 
occasionally transverse bands. 

Ques. 81. What are the cavities called which are 
formed by the contraction of the bands of the colon ? 

Ans. They are called the cells of the colon. 

Ques. 82. What are the appendices coli adiposae ? 

Ans. There are many fatty processes hanging from the 
outside of the colon and caecum, called appendices coli 
adiposae, or appendices epiploicae. 

Rectum. 

Ques. 83. What is the situation of the iectum ? 
Ans. It extends from the last lumbar vertebra to the 
anus. 



221 

Ques. 84. What is its course ? 

Ans. It runs in a direct course in the hollow of the os 
sacrum and os eoccygis ? 

Ques. 85. In what does the rectum terminate ? 

Ans. Its external termination is called the anus. 

Ques. 86. How does the membranous coat of this in- 
testine differ from that of the other intestines ? 

Ans. It often eontains a great quantity of fat. 

Ques. 87. How does its muscular coat differ from that 
of the other intestines ? 

Ans. Its muscular coat is thicker, and its longitudinal 
fibres stronger. 

Ques. 88. How does its nervous and villous coats dif- 
fer from that of the other intestines ? 

Ans. Its nervous and villous coats are larger, and form 
numerous rugae. 

Ques. 89. How are these rugae arranged? 

Ans. Towards the anus they become longitudinal, and 
towards the inner margin of the anus they form little bags, 
the openings of which are turned upward. 

Ques. 90. Is the rectum supplied with glands? 

Ans. Yes ; it has a great number of mucous glands. 

Mesentery. 

Ques. 91. How is the mesentery formed? 

Ans. It is formed by two layers of the peritoneum, 
which separate at the loose or folded edge to surround the 
intestines. 

Ques. 92. Into what parts is the mesentery divided ? 

Ans. That part which supports the small intestines 
retains the name of mesentery : that which fixes the large 
intestines is called meso-colon. 

Ques. 93. Where does the mesentery begin ? 

Ans. It begins at the last incurvation of the duodenum. 
19* 



222 

Ques. 94. What is its course ? 

Ans. It passes obliquely from left to right along the 
vertebrae of the loins. 

Ques. 95. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is narrow at its upper and lower parts, but 
chiefly at its upper part ; while the middle portion is very 
broad, and its intestinal edge much plaited. 

Ques. 96. How are its laminae connected ? 

Ans. Theyare connected together by cellular substance. 

Ques. 97. What is contained between the laminae of 
the mesentery ? 

Ans. Numerous lymphatics, arteries, veins, nerves, 
and glands. 

Ques. 98. What is the meso-colon ? 

Ans. It is a continuation of the mesentery to support 
the large intestines. 

Ques. 99. Where does it commence ? 

Ans. At the extremity of the ilium. 

Ques. 100. Where is the ligamentum coli dextrum 
situated ? 

Ans. At the commencement of the meso-colon, under 
the right kidney. 

Ques. 101. How is it formed? 

Ans. By a small transverse fold of the mesentery. 

Ques. 102. What is the course of the meso-colon after 
the formation of the ligamentum dextrum ? 

Ans. After the formation of the ligamentum dextrum, 
the meso-colon ascends towards the right kidney, where 
it almost disappears by the adhesion of the colon to that 
kidney and to the first turn of the duodenum ; appearing 
again, it increases in breadth, and passes transversely 
under the liver, stomach, and spleen, including the great 
arch of the colon ; it then turns downward toward the 
left kidney. 

Ques. 103. Where does the meso-colon form the liga- 
mentum coli sinistrum ? 



223 

Ans. Below the left kidney it again becomes short, 
and forms the ligamentum coli sinistrum. 

Ques. 104. What is the course of the meso-colon after 
it forms the ligamentum coli sinistrum ? 

Ans. It widens, but less than in the upper part, and 
ascends on the left psoas muscle, and continues on the 
sigmoid flexure of the colon. 

Ques. 105. Where is the meso-rectum situated ? 

Ans. Between the rectum and os sacrum, at the up- 
per part, it fixes this gut ; it is a continuation of the 
meso-colon.' 

Liver. 

Ques. 106. What is the liver? 

Ans. The liver is the largest viscus in the abdomen ; 
it is a solid mass of a dark red colour, inclined to a 
brownish yellow, whose office it is to secrete the bile. 
Ques. 107. Where is it situated? 
Ans. It is situated immediately under the diaphragm, 
partly in the right hypochondrium, which it nearly fills ; 
and partly in the epigastrium, between the spine and 
ensifonne cartilage, terminating generally in the left hypo- 
chondrium. 

Ques. 108. What is its form ? 

Ans. Its figure is irregular, being convex superiorly, 
unequally concave inferiorly, very thick towards the back 
and right side ; it becomes gradually thin towards the left 
side, and forms an acute edge anteriorly. 
Ques. 109. How is it divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into three lobes, viz., the great or 
right lobe, the small or left lobe, and the lobulus spigelii. 
Ques. 110. How is the right lobe divided from the 
left? 

Ans. It is divided superiorly by a membranous ligament, 
and inferiorly by a considerable fissure. 



224 

Ques. 111. What is the situation of the lobulus spi- 
gelii ? 

Ans. It is situated on the inferior side of the liver, 
towards its back part, near the great fissure. 

Ques. 112. How many depressions are se«n on the 
under side of the liver ? 

Ans. Seven. 

Ques. 113. What are the depressions of the liver 
called ? 

Ans. First, the great fissure ; secondly, one for the 
sinus of the vena portae ; thirdly, one for the vena cavae ; 
fourthly, a furrow between the left lobe and lobulus spi- 
gelii, for a venous canal in the fetus ; fifthly, a depression 
for the gall bladder ; sixthly, a superficial cavity, caused 
by the stomach ; and seventhly, the great sinus, for the 
spine and oesophagus, at the posterior part of the left lobe. 

Ques. 114. Where is the great fissure of the liver 
situated ? 

Ans. It runs from behind forward, on the inferior side 
of the liver, between its two lobes. 

Ques. 115. Where is the sinus of the vena portae ? 

Ans. It is placed transversely between the eminences 
on the inferior surface of the great lobe. 

Ques. 116. Where is the sinous of the vena cava. 

Ans. It is situated posteriorly at the extremity of the 
great fissure, between the great lobe and lobulus spigelii. 

Ques. 117. Where is the depression for the gall 
bladder ? 

Ans. It is situated on the fore part of the inferior sur- 
face of the great lobe. 

Ques. 1 18. How many ligaments does the liver possess 1 

Ans. It is kept in its situation by five ligaments. 

Ques. 119. What are the names of the ligaments of 
the liver ? 

Ans. The broad ligament, the round ligament, the right 
and left lateral ligament, and the coronary ligament. 



225 

Ques. 120. How are the ligaments of the liver formed ? 

Ans. The broad, and the right and left ligaments, are 
continuations or duplicatures of the peritoneum ; the 
round ligament was the umbilical vein of the foetus, and 
the coronary ligament is merely a broad adhesion. 

Ques. 121 . To what does the middle or broad ligament 
of the liver connect it ? 

Ans. It divides the right lobe from the left, and con- 
nects the liver to the diaphragm, and to the upper and 
inner part of the sheath of the rectus abdominis obliquely, 
so as to be nearer the linea alba below than above. 
r Ques. 122. Where is the round ligament of the liver 
situated ? 

Ans. It is the remains of the umbilical vein of the foetus, 
and is placed in the anterior edge of the broad ligament ; 
it is fixed to the umbilicus, and enters the great fissure. 

Ques. 123. To what do the right and left ligament of 
the liver connect it ? 

Ans. They connect it to the cartilages of the false 
ribs. 

Ques. 124. To what does the coronary ligament of 
the liver connect it ? 

Ans. It connects it to the right ala of the tendinous 
portion of the diaphragm. 

Ques. 125. What is the structure of the liver ? 

Ans. It is composed of several kinds of vessels, 
which by their intertexture form numerous friable cor- 
puscules. 

Ques. 126. By what are the vessels of the liver 
enveloped ? 

Ans. By a sheath of cellular membrane, called the 
capsule of the vena portae, or glissons capsule. 

Ques. 127. What are the vessels of the liver? 

Ans. They are the hepatic artery, the vena portae, and 
the hepatic veins ; to which may be added the excretory 
ducts, and absorbents. 



226 

Ques. 128. By what vessels is the blood carried to 
the liver ? 

Ans. The hepatic artery and vena portae. 

Ques. 129. Of what use is the hepatic artery ? 

Ans. It is the nutrient artery of the liver. 

Ques. 130. What is the use of the vena portae ? 

Ans. It acts both as a vein and artery ; as a vein, it 
receives the blood from most of the abdominal viscera ; 
as an artery, it ramifies through the liver, and then secretes 
the bile. 

Ques. 181- How many great branches are generally 
given off by the vena portae ? 

Ans. It gives off five principal branches. 

Ques. 132. In what do the ramifications of the vena 
portae terminate 1 

Ans. The terminations of its branches are in villous 
follicles, or acini, as they have been called. 

Ques. 133. What is the use of these folliculi or 
acini ? 

Ans. The bile is secreted in them. 

Ques. 134. What is the name of the small excretory 
ducts of the hepatic folliculi ? 

Ans. They are called pori biliarii. 

Ques. 135. In what do the pori biliarii terminate ? 

Ans. They terminate in one large duct, called the 
ductus hepaticus. 

Ques. 136. Where does the hepatic duct terminate ? 

Ans. After joining the duct from the gall bladder called 
the cystic duct, it terminates in the duodenum. 

Ques. 137. How is the blood conveyed from the liver ? 

Ans. The hepatic veins return the blood to the inferior 
cava. 

Ques. 138. Whence does the liver derive its nerves ? 

Ans. From the great sympathetic and eighth pair. 

Ques. 139. What is glissons capsule ? 

Ans. The vessels, ducts, and nerves, which enter at 



227 

the portae, are previously collected together and sur- 
rounded by a peritoneal covering, which is the true 
glissons capsule. 

Gall Bladder, 

Ques. 140. What is the gall bladder? 

Ans. It is a small bag which contains the bile. 

Ques. 141. Where is it situated ? 

Ans. In the anterior part of the inferior surface of the 
great lobe of the liver. 

Ques. 142. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is pyriform, but in infants often cylindrical. 

Ques. 143. How is it divided? 

Ans. It is divided into a body, fundus, and neck. 

Ques. 144. How is the gall bladder situated when we 
stand ? 

Ans. It lies in a plain, slightly inclined from behind 
forward, in the erect posture ; its fundus being turned 
forward. 

Ques. 145. How many coats does the gall bladder 
possess ? 

Ans. It has four. 

Ques. 146. What is peculiar to the internal coat? 

Ans. The internal or villous coat is thrown into nume- 
rous minute folds, arranged in a beautiful reticular form, 
filled with small lacunas, or ducts of follicles, especially 
near its neck ; at which place the folds become longi- 
tudinal, and form a kind of small pylorus. 

Ques. 147. Has the gall bladder any direct connexion 
with the liver ? 

Ans. It is connected by vessels and cellular membrane 
to the liver ; but in the human body, no branches from 
the pori biliarii have been discovered opening into it. 

Ques. 148. How is the neck of the gall bladder 
formed ? 



228 

Ans. It is formed by the contraction and incurvation of 
the small extremity. 

Ques. 149. What is the internal appearance of the 
neck of the gall bladder ? 

Ans. On its internal surface there are several reticular 
rugae. 

Ques. 150. What is the course of the cystic duct? 

Ans. It proceeds from the neck of the gall bladder, 
runs near the hepatic duct, and then joins it. 

Ques. 151. What duct is formed by the union of the 
hepatic and cystic ducts ? 

Ans. The ductus communis choledochus. 

Ques. 152. Where does the ductus communis chole- 
dochus terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates, in common with the pancreatic 
duct, on the inside of the duodenum. 

Ques. 153. What is the course of the bile ? 

Ans. It is secreted by the extremities of the vena porta? 
in the acini ; passes through the pori biliarii and branches 
of the hepatic duct ; by this duct it is conveyed to the 
ductus communis choledochus ; from whence, in part, it 
passes by the cystic duct to the gall bladder : when 
needed in the intestine, it returns by the cystic duct and 
mixes in the ductus communis choledochus with fresh 
bile from the hepatic duct ; and lastly, passes into the 
duodenum. 

Pancreas. 

Ques. 154. What is the pancreas ? 

Ans. It is a long, flat, glandular body, of a grayish white 
colour. 

Ques. 155. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is placed at the back part of the epigastric 
region, transversely under the stomach, and before the 
spine, the crura of the diaphragm, the aorta, and vena cava. 



229 

Ques. 156. How is the pancreas generally divided ? 

Ans. Into a superior and an inferior edge, an anterior 
and a posterior side, a large and a small extremity. 

Ques. 157. With what parts are its extremities con- 
nected ? 

Ans. Its large or right extremity is connected to the 
second incurvation of the duodenum, and its lesser extre- 
mity to the omentum, near the spleen. 

Ques. 158. Where is that part situated which has 
been termed the lesser pancreas ? 

Ans. At the lower part of the great extremity, where it 
is connected with the duodenum. 

Ques. 159. Where does the duct of the lesser pan- 
creas terminate ? 

Ans. It passes into the extremity of the duct of the 
greater pancreas, although sometimes it has a separate 
opening into the duodenum. 

Ques. 160. How does the pancreatic duct arise? 

Ans. From numerous small branches ; it is nearly trans- 
parent. 

Ques. 161. What is the situation of this duct? 

Ans. It is placed horizontally with the substance of the 
gland, toward the middle of its inferior edge. 

Ques. 162. Where does it terminate? 

Ans. Along with the ductus communis choledochus in 
the duodenum. 

Ques. 163. What is the structure of the pancreas ? 

Ans. It consists of a great number of small glandular 
particles connected loosely together ; it resembles the sali- 
vary glands. 

Ques. 164. Whence does it derive its arteries ? 

Ans. From the pyloric and duodenal, but chiefly from 
the splenic artery. 

Ques. 165. Whence does its veins pass ? 

Ans. They pass into the splenic vein. 
20 



230 

Ques. 166. From whence does it derive its nerves 1 
Ans. From the great sympathetic and eighth pair. 

Spleen. 

Ques. 1 67* What is the spleen ? 

Ans* It is a soft sponge-like fleshy purple mass. 

Ques. 168, Where is it situated? 

Ans. In the left hypochondrium, at the large extremity 
of the stomach. 

Ques. 169. What is its shape ? 

Ans. It is somewhat of an oval form. 

Ques. 170. Into what parts is it generally divided? 

Ans. It has an external surface, uniformly convex ; an 
internal surface, divided by a groove into two concavities ; 
the anterior opposed to the stomach, the posterior to the 
colon and left kidney ; two edges, often notched ; and two 
extremities. 

Ques. 171. What is its structure? 

Ans. It appears to be of cellular structure, but it is pro- 
bably a conjeries of blood vessels. 

Ques. 172. From whence does it receive its blood ? 

Ans. From the splenic artery, which is a branch of 
the coeliac ? 

Ques. 173. Whence do its veins pass ? 

Ans. To the vena portae. 

Ques. 174. From whence does it derive its nerves ? 

Ans. From the great sympathetic and eighth pair. 

Ques. 175. What is its use ? 

Ans. This has been a matter of great contention ; some 
think that it contributes towards the process of assimila- 
tion, first, by its capacity to receive various quantities of 
blood, and secondly by effecting some change on it; 
others, that it is subservient in its functions to those of 
the liver ; Hewson, that it is necessary to the elaboration 
of the globules of the blood ; again, there are some who 



231 

believe that it is subordinate to the stomach in the pro- 
cess of digestion. It probably performs many or all of 
these functions.* 

Omentum. 

Ques. 176. What is the omentum ? 

Ans. It is a large duplicature of the peritoneum. 

Ques. 177. What is its situation? 

Ans. It hangs loosely before the small intestines. 

Ques. 178. What is its form ? 

Ans* It resembles a flat bag, whose sides are in contact. 

Ques. 179. Where is it attached 1 

Ans. Its mouth or opening is attached to the great 
curvature of the stomach, and to the arch of the colon, 
and may be separated by inflation. 

Ques. 180. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It consists of two laminae connected by cellular sub- 
stance, between which there are numerous portions of fat. 

Ques .181. What is the situation of the little omentum ? 

Ans. It is fixed to the small curvature of the stomach, 
and to the concave side of the liver. 

Ques. 182. How does the cavity of the omentum 
communicate with the abdomen ? 

Ans. It communicates with the abdomen on the right 
side only, under glissons capsule, by a semilunar orifice, 
called the foramen of Winslow. 

Kidneys, 

Ques. 183. What are the kidneys ? 
Ans. They are two glandular bodies, of a red colour, 
destined to secrete the urine. 

* May it not furnish the bile contained in the gall bladder by some 
duct not yet discovered'? The bile of that reservoir being of different 
appearance and constitution than that of the hepatic bile. 



232 

Ques. 184. What is their situation? 

Ans. They are situated on the posterior part of the 
abdomen, on each side of the lumbar vertebras, between 
the last false rib and ossa ilia. 

Ques. 185. What is the difference in the situation of 
the right and left kidney ? 

Ans. The right kidney lying under the great lobe of the 
liver is lower than the left, which lies under the spleen. 

Ques. 186. What is the form of the kidney ? 

Ans. It somewhat resembles the form of a large bean ; 
its circumference is convex on the outer side, and concave 
on the inner ; the posterior side is broader and flatter than 
the fore side, and the upper extremity is more incurvated 
and larger than the lower. 

Ques. 187. What coats does the kidney possess ? 

Ans. They have no peritoneal investment, but they are 
every where surrounded by a proper coat, which consists 
of two laminae, of which the external is thin and adheres 
to the internal ; this penetrates the substance of the kid- 
ney every where by numerous elongations. 

Ques. 188. What is the structure of the kidney? 

Ans. It consists of two substances, namely, an external 
termed cortical substance, and an internal named medul- 
lary substance. 

Ques. 189. How may the cortical and medullary 
substances be distinguished from each other ? 

Ans. The medullary substance is of a much paler 
colour, and more dense texture than the cortical ; it is 
divided into a number of unequal conical portions, which 
terminate in nipple projections, called papillae, or ma- 
millary processes. 

Ques. 190. What is the number of the papillae ? 

Ans. They vary in number from eight to twelve, or 
more. 

Ques. 191. What is the name of the cavities in which 
the papillae are situated ? 



233 

Ans. Each papillae is situated in a small funnel-like 
cavity, called calix or infundibulum. 

Ques. 192. What is the name of the cavity in which 
the calices or infundibula of the kidney terminate ? 

Ans. The infundibula join and form two or three tubes, 
which ultimately form a large conical cavity, called the 
pelvis of the kidney ; it is placed in part within, but more 
without the body of the kidney, and is the commencement 
of the duct of the kidney. 

Ques. 193. What is the name of the duct leading from 
the pelvis of the kidney ? 

Ans. The ureter. 

Ques. 194. What is the course of the ureter? 

Ans. It descends, obliquely and slightly inflected, from 
the kidney to the sides of the anterior part of the os 
sacrum ; and passing between the rectum and bladder 
terminates in the last of these viscera. 

Ques. 195. How many coats has the ureter? 

Ans. Three. 

Ques. 196. What is the structure of the coats of the 
ureter ? 

Ans. The external consists of a compact filamentary 
substance ; the middle one of several strata or fibres ; 
and the internal one is of the mucous kind. 

Ques. 197. Whence are the arteries of the kidneys 
derived ? 

Ans. The artery of the kidneys which is called the 
emulgent, comes directly from the aorta. 

Ques. 198. Whence do the veins of the kidney pass ? 

Ans. The veins which are called the emulgent veins 
pass to the inferior cava. 

Ques. 199. Whence aie the nerves derived? 

Ans. From the great sympathetic and eighth pair. 

Ques. 200. What is the situation of the ureter in re- 
lation to the emulgent artery and vein ? 
20* 



234 

Ans, The emulgent artery and vein, and the ureter, 
enter the kidney at its inner edge, the artery being up- 
permost ; the pelvis, and beginning of the ureter, behind 
and below the blood vessels. 

Renal Glands. 

Ques. 201. What are the renal glands ? 

Ans. They are two small, flat, dark yellow-coloured 
bodies. 

Ques. 202. Where are they situated? 

Ans. Immediately above the kidneys, on which they 
rest. 

Ques. 203. W T hat is the shape of these glands ? 

Ans. Each gland is of an oblong, irregular, three-sided 
figure. 

Ques. 204. What is the internal appearance of these 
glands ? 

Ans. A cavity is found within them. 

Ques. 205. What is the form of this cavity ? 

Ans. It is of a narrow and triangular figure. 

Ques. 206. What is contained in these cavities ? 

Ans. They are full of strong, yellow villi, and a dark 
bile-like fluid. 

Ques. 207. Are these glands largest in the fcetus or 
adult ? 

Ans. They are much larger in the fcetus. 



235 



SECTION XXIX. 



OF THE PELVIC VISCERA. 



Ques, 1. Of what are the pelvic viscera generally said 
to consist? 

Ans. Under this head is comprised the urinary bladder, 
rectum, and parts of generation. 

Urinary Bladder. 

Ques. 2. What is the urinary bladder ? 
Ans. It is a large membranous bag, which serves as a 
reservoir for the urine. 

Ques. 3. What is its situation 1 

Ans. It is placed in the lower part of the abdomen, 
and front of the pelvis, immediately behind the symphysis 
pubis, above and before the lower part of the rectum. 

Ques. 4. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat oviform, rounder above than below 
when empty, and broader below than above when full. 

Ques. 5. What parts of the urinary bladder are gene- 
rally enumerated ? 

Ans. It is divided into a body, a neck turned downward 
and forward, and a fundus turned upward. 

Ques. 6. How many coats has the bladder? 

Ans. Four. 

Ques. 7. What are their names ? 

Ans. An external or peritoneal, a muscular, a cellular, 
commonly called nervous, and a villous or mucous coat. 

Ques. 8. What is the extent of the peritoneal coat ? 

Ans. It only covers the fundus, sides, and back part, 
to a little within the termination of the ureters. 



236 



Ques. 9. What is the direction of the fibres of the 
muscular coat ? 

Ans. They are collected into distinct bundles : the ex- 
ternal ones are mostly longitudinal ; the middle ones are 
inclined to each side ; and the internal ones become more 
and more oblique ; thus crossing each other in various 
directions. 

Ques. 10. What is the nature of the cellular or nervous 
coat? 

Ans. It nearly resembles in situation and use the tunic, 
of the same name, in the stomach and intestines. 

Ques. 11. What is the structure of the internal coat ? 

Ans. It is of firm texture, though not thick ; it is thrown 
into folds or rugae, when the bladder is empty. 

Ques. 12. How many openings are there into the 
bladder ? 

Ans. There are three, situated at the under part. 

Ques. 13. What is the anterior opening? 

Ans. The beginning of the urethra, surrounded by the 
neck of the bladder. 

Ques. 14. What is termed the neck of the bladder ? 

Ans. It is an elongation of the proper coats of the 
bladder, terminating in the inferior orifice. 

Ques. 15. Where do the ureters open into the blad- 
der? 

Ans. At the posterior part. 

Ques. 16. At what distance are these openings from 
each other? 

Ans. Passing obliquely through the coats of the bladder, 
they open an inch and a half from each other, and from 
the urethra. 

Ques. 17. Where is the urachus ? 

Ans. At the top of the bladder, above the symphysis 
pubis ; it ascends between the peritoneum and linea alba 
to the umbilicus. 

Ques. 18. What is the use of the urachus ? 



237 

Ans. In the foetus it is hollow, but its use is not 
understood. 

Ques. 19. Whence are the arteries of the bladder de- 
rived ? 

Ans. From the internal iliac. 

Ques. 20. Whence- do its veins pass ? 

Ans. To the internal iliac veins. 

Ques. 21. Whence are its nerves derived? 

Ans. From the sacral and great sympathetic. 

Male Organs of Generation. 

Ques. 22. Of what parts do the male organs of gene- 
ration consist? 

Ans. They consist of the testicles, with the epididymis, 
and vasa deferentia, contained in the scrotum ; the 
vesiculae seminales, prostate gland, Cowper's glands, and 
veru montanum, about the neck of the bladder; and 
lastly, the penis, composed of the corpora cavernosa, 
corpus spongiosum, glans penis, and urethra. 

Scrotum. 

Ques. 23. How is the scrotum formed ? 

Ans. It is a loose bag, formed merely by a continuation 
of the integuments ; it is devoid of fat. 

Ques. 24. What is the raphe ? 

Ans. It is a projecting line, which divides it into two 
equal parts. 

Ques. 25. What is the dartos ? 

Ans. The cellular substance on the inside of the scro- 
tum is fibrous, and of a red colour ; it has therefore by 
some been thought muscular, and called dartos. 

Ques. 26. What is the septum scroti ? 

Ans. Loose cellular substance every where connects the 
testicles to the scrotum, and forms a septum between them. 



238 



Testes. 



Ques. 27. What are the testes ? 

Ans. They are two glandular bodies of an oval figure, 
which secrete the semen, and are contained in the scrotum. 

Ques. 28. How many coats has the testicles ? 

Ans. Each testicle has two coats, viz., the tunica vagi- 
nalis, and the tunica albuginea. 

Ques. 29. Describe the tunica vaginalis. 

Ans. It surrounds the testicle as the pericardium does 
the heart, adhering only at its posterior and superior part ; 
its internal surface is lubricated by a serous fluid. 

Ques. 30. What is the tunica albuginea ? 

Ans. It firmly invests the testicle, and gives it support 
and form. 

Ques. 31. What is the internal structure of testes? 

Ans. When the tunica albuginea is opened, the testicle 
is seen to consist of an immense number of whitish tubes, 
called tubuli seminiferi, folded in various ways, and dis- 
tributed in different fasciculi between membranous septa ; 
the septa are disposed longitudinally, diverging from the 
posterior edge of the testicle, form a white body, which 
may be termed the nucleus of the testicle ; at this nucleus 
the tubuli seminiferi terminate in common trunks, forming 
the rete testes, which afterwards penetrate the upper part 
of the anterior extremity of the testes, and are called the 
vasa efferentia. 

Epididymus. 

Ques. 32. What is the epididimus ? 

Ans. It is an oblong, flattened body, situated along the 
lateral external part of the upper edge of the testicle as 
far as its posterior extremity, from the common trunks of 
the tubuli seminiferi or vasa efferentia ; it in some 



239 

measure resembles a flat arch, slightly concave on the 
under side, and irregularly convex on the upper side. 

Ques. 33. What is the course of the epididymus ? 

Ans. Its anterior extremity, called its head, arises from 
the testicle, and receives the vasa erTerentia ; its posterior 
extremity or cauda, which also adheres, becomes gra- 
dually smaller; the whole appears composed of one 
convoluted tube. 

Ques. 34. Where does it terminate I 

Ans. In the excretory duct of the testicle called the 
vas deferens. 

Vas Deferens. 

Ques. 35. What is the vas deferens ? 

Ans. It is the excretory duct of the testicle, and is a 
small white tube of dense structure. 

Ques. 36. W T hence does it arise ? 

Ans. It arises from the epididymus. 

Ques. 37. What is its course ? 

Ans. It forms, in common with the blood vessels and 
nerves of the testicle, the spermatic cord, in the cellular 
substance, of which it ascends to the abdominal ring, 
being situated behind the vessels ; having reached the 
peritoneum, it separates from the vessels and runs back, 
in a curved direction, through the cellular substance of the 
peritoneum, descends to the nearest side of the bladder, 
then passes behind it, covered by its peritoneal coat ; it 
afterwards continues its course towards the neck of the 
bladder, where it terminates near its fellow. In this 
course it crosses the umbilical artery and the extremity 
of the ureter, passing behind the former, and between 
the latter and the bladder. 

Vesiculx Seminales. 
Ques. 38. What are the vesiculae seminales ? 



240 

Ans. They are two oblong membranous reservoirs. 

Ques. 39. What is their situation ? 

Ans. They are situated obliquely at the lower and 
under part of the bladder, and before the rectum ; near 
each other anteriorly, but distant behind. 

Ques. 40. What is their structure ? 

Ans. They are formed by a convolution of one tube, 
whose doublings are closely connected together. 

Ques. 41. What is their internal appearance ? 

Ans. Internally they appear to be composed of cells. 

Ques. 42. What is their external covering ? 

Ans. They are covered and connected to the bladder 
and other surrounding parts by cellular membrane. 

Ques. 43. What is the nature of their internal coat ? 

Ans. It is a villous secreting membrane. 

Ques. 44. How are they connected with the vasa 
deferentia ? 

Ans. The vasa deferentia, becoming larger, run between 
the continuous extremities of the vesiculae seminales ; and 
the termination of each is partly formed by the contiguous 
vesicula, so that these extremities communicate on each side. 

Ques. 45. Where do the vesiculae seminales open ? 

Ans. Each vesicle, after joining the contiguous vas 
deferens, pierces the prostate gland, and opens into the 
urethra. 

Ques. 46. What is their use ? 

Ans. They secrete a peculiar fluid, but are not thought 
to retain the semen. 

Prostate Gland. 

Ques. 47. What is the prostate gland ? 
Ans. It is a firm glandular body. 
Ques. 48. Where is it situated ? 
Ans. At the neck of the bladder and beginning of the 
urethra. 



241 

Ques. 49. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat of the form and about the size of 
a chesnut, broad behind, and pointed before. 

Ques. 50. What are its connections with the sur- 
rounding parts? 

Ans. Its basis is turned towards the bladder, its apex 
towards the urethra, its inferior surface is convex, and 
connected to the rectum ; through its substance, near the 
superior surface, the urethra passes. 

Ques. 51. What is its structure? 

Ans. It is of a spongy but very compact texture, con- 
sisting of numerous follicles. 

Ques. 52. What openings are there from the follicles 
of the prostate into the urethra ? 

Ans. Their ducts, which are ten or twelve in number. 

Ques. 53. What is its use ? 

Ans. It secretes a peculiar thin white fluid, which 
mingles with the semen. 

Anti-Pro states or Cowper's Glands. 

Ques. 54. What are the anti-prostatae ? 
Ans. They are two bodies, about the size of a pea. 
Ques. 55. Where are they situated? 
Ans. Before the prostate, near the bulb of the urethra. 
Ques. 56. Where do their ducts open ? 
Ans. Near the beginning of the urethra. 
Ques. 57. What is their use ? 

Ans. They contribute a fluid which lubricates the 
urethra. 

Veru montanum, or Caput Gallinaginis. 

Ques. 58. What is the veru montanum ? 
Ans. It is a small oblong oval eminence. 
21 



242 

Ques. 59. How is it situated ? 

Ans. It is situated immediately within the prostate, at 
the under part of the urethra. 

Ques. 60. By what is the veru montanum perforated ? 

Ans. Its summit is perforated by the two orifices of the 
vesiculae seminales ? 

Penis. 

Ques. 61 . What are the parts which compose the penis ? 
Ans. The penis consists of the corpora cavernosa, 
corpus spongiosum, urethra, and glans penis. 

Corpora Cavernosa. 

Ques. 62. What are the corpora cavernosa ? 

Ans. They form the body of the penis ; they are two 
large ligamentary tubes, firmly united together. 

Ques. 63. Where are they situated ? 

Ans. They are situated by the side of each other. 

Ques. 64. What grooves are formed by their union? 

Ans. Their junction is marked by two grooves, of which 
one is superior, the other inferior and much the largest. 

Ques. 65. What is situated in the lower groove ? 

Ans. The corpus spongiosum urethrae. 

Ques. 66. What is it situated in the upper groove ? 

Ans. The vena magna penis. 

Ques. 67. To what are the ends of the corpora ca- 
vernosa joined anteriorly ? 

Ans. They terminate anteriorly by a rounded extre- 
mity, which is covered by the glans penis ; posteriorly, 
they are entirely separate, forming the crura penis, which 
are attached to the edge of the ramus of the os ischium 
and os pubis. 

Ques. 68. What is the structure of the corpora ca- 
vernosa ? 



243 

Ans. A dense ligamentous sheet forms their external 
part ; internally, they consist of numerous cells, which 
freely communicate with each other. 

Ques. 69. How are the two corpora cavernosa divided ? 

Ans. They are internally separated from each other by 
a particular septum, called pecten, which however is 
perforated by numerous fissures. 

Urethra. 

Ques. 70. What is the urethra ? 

Ans. It is a long membranous canal, extending from 
the neck of the bladder to the end of the penis. 

Ques. 71. What is its situation? 

Ans. It is lodged in the lower groove, between the two 
corpora cavernosa. 

Ques. 72. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is not throughout of equal bore, being most 
dilated in the prostate gland, again an inch and a half 
before it, and lastly just before its external orifice. 

Ques. 73. What is its structure 1 

Ans. It is a continuation of the membrane which lines 
the bladder. 

Ques. 74. What are the lacunae ? 

Ans. Numerous small openings on its surface leading 
to minute pouches. 

Ques. 75. In what direction are the openings of the 
lacunae ? 

Ans. Their openings are turned forward. 

Corpus Spongiosum. 

Ques. 76. What is the name of the substance sur- 
rounding the urethra ? 

Ans. It is called the corpus spongiosum urethra, except 
at about a finger breadth and a half from its origin at the 



244 

bladder, where it is termed the membranous part of the 
urethrae. 

Ques. 77. Where is the membranous part of the 
urethra situated ? 

Ans. About an inch of its length before the prostate. 

Ques. 78. Where is the bulb of the urethra situated? 

Ans. The posterior commencement of the corpus spon- 
giosum is dilated into a conical prominence called the bulb. 

Ques. 79. Where is the glans penis situated ? 

Ans. It expands over the ends of the corpora cavernosa. 

Ques. 80. By what is the glans penis perforated ? 

Ans. It is perforated anteriorly by the orifice of the 
urethrae. 

Ques. 81. Where is the corona glandis ? 

Ans. It is a prominent edge, situated posteriorly. 

Ques. 82. What is the structure of the corpus spon- 
giosum ? 

Ans. It is composed of a congeries of veins. 

Ques. 83. Whence are the arteries of the penis 
derived ? 

Ans. From the internal pudic. 

Ques. 84. What is the course of the veins of the penis ? 

Ans. They receive the blood from the cells of the 
corpora cavernosa ; they then form the corpus spongiosum, 
which is an extensive plexus of veins ; from this several 
branches pass to the dorsum penis, and join the vena 
magna penis ; this passes under the arch of the pubis, 
where it opens into another considerable plexus which 
surrounds the prostate and neck of the bladder ; and finally 
the hypogastric veins receive the blood. 

Ques. 85. How is the erection of the penis effected ? 

Ans. The arteries, acting with increased velocity, dis- 
tend the corpora cavernosa with blood, where it is retained 
on account of the peculiar construction of the veins 
through whose plexus it flows slowly. 



245 



Integuments of the Penis. 

Ques. 86. What are the integuments of the penis ? 

Ans. The common integuments, devoid of fat, afford a 
loose and very moveable covering to the penis, except on 
the glans, where they are very firmly adhering, and of 
much more delicate structure. 

Ques. 87. What is the praeputium ? 

Ans. Immediately behind the corona glandis the inte- 
guments form a loose doubling, called the praeputium, 
which in the unerected state cover the glans. 

Ques. 88. What is the fraenum ? 

Ans. A fold of the praeputium at the upper part of the 
glans. 



Female Organs of Generation. 

Ques, 89. How are the parts of generation in females 
divided ? 

Ans. They are divided into external and internal parts. 

Ques. 90. What are the internal parts ? 

Ans. The uterus, and its appendages, viz., the fallo- 
pian tubes, ovaria, spermatic vessels, ligamentum lata, 
ligamentum rotunda, and the vagina. 

Ques. 91. W T hat are the external parts ? 

Ans. They are the pubis, labia pudendi, the nymphae, 
the clitoris, the orifice of the urethra, and the orifice of 
the vagina. 



21* 



246 



INTERNAL PARTS. 



Uterus. 

Ques. 92. What is the uterus ? 

Ans. It is a hollow, fleshy viscus, destined to retain 
and nourish the foetus. 

Ques. 93. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is placed between the bladder and rectum. 

Ques. 94. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat of the figure of a flat flask, about 
three fingers' breadth in length, one in thickness, two in 
breadth at one end, and scarcely one at the other. 

Ques. 95. What are its divisions ? 

Ans. It is divided into its fundus, or upper part ; body, 
or middle ; cervix, or neck, which is turned downward. 

Ques. 96. W r hat is the form of the uterine cavity ? 

Ans. It is small, owing to the great thickness of its 
sides ; it is flat, and resembles an oblong triangle, the 
shortest side of which corresponds to the fundus, and the 
two longest sides toward each hand ; while all of them 
bend inward to the cavity which they form. 

Ques. 97. What openings are there into the cavity of 
the uterus ? 

Ans. There are three openings ; two at the angles of 
its fundus, and one at its neck. 

Ques. 98. What are the openings of its fundus ? 

Ans. They lead to the fallopian tubes. 

Quess. 99. What is their size ? 

Ans. They are extremely small, hardly admitting a 
bristle. 

Ques. 100. Whither does the opening at its neck lead ? 

Ans. To the vagina. 

Ques. 101. What is its size ? 



247 

An3. It is wider than those at its fundus, and of a flat 
form ? 

Ques. 102. What is the name generally given to this 
opening ? 

Ans. It is called the internal orifice of the uterus, os 
uteri, or os tincae. 

Ques. 103. How is the uterus lined ? 

Ans. By a very fine membrane. 

Ques. 104. In what part of the uterus does this mem- 
brane form rugae ? 

Ans. In the neck which leads to to the os tincae. 

Ques. 105. By what small foramina is the os uteri 
surrounded ? 

Ans. The openings of many follicles are seen about 
the os uteri. 

Ques. 1 06. "What is the internal structure of the uterus ? 

Ans. It is of a spongy, yet compact structure, with 
an intertexture of numerous vessels. 

Ques. 107. By what membrane is the uterus covered 
externally ? 

Ans. By a portion of peritoneum, continued from that 
which covers the bladder and rectum. 

Ques. 108. How are the broad ligaments of the 
uterus formed ? 

Ans. The laminae of the portions of peritoneum which 
cover the uterus, meeting on each side, form two dupli- 
catures, called the broad ligaments or ligamenta lata. 

Ques. 109. What is their situation ? 

Ans. They pass from the edges of the uterus to the 
sides of the cavity of the pelvis, thus transversely dividing 
it into two, an anterior and a posterior cavity. 

Ques. 110. What are the alae of the broad ligaments ? 

Ans. The two-fold superior edges of the ligamenta 
lata. 

Ques. 111. What is contained between the lamina? o( 
the broad ligaments ? 



248 

Ans. The fallopian tubes, the ovaria, some of the sper- 
matic vessels, the round ligaments, and nerves. 

Ques. 112. What are the round ligaments of the uterus ? 

Ans. They are two long cords, which arise from the 
superior part of the sides of the uterus ; they pass between 
the laminae of the ligamenta lata, and then forward toward 
the abdominal ring, through which they pass to the pubis, 
where they are fixed. 

Ovaria. 

Ques. 113. What are the ovaria? 

Ans. They are two oval, oblong, flat bodies, in which 
the rudiments of the foetus are supposed to be formed. 

Ques. 114. What is their situation? 

Ans. They are placed in the duplicature, called the 
posterior pinion of the ligamenta lata, near the fundus of 
the uterus. 

Ques. 115. How are they connected to the uterus ? 

Ans. In addition to the broad ligaments, two short 
round ligaments attach them to the uterus. 

Ques. 116. What is their internal structure ? 

Ans. They consist of a compact spongy substance and 
of several small transparent vesicles, called ova, which 
contain a glairy fluid. 

Fallopian Tubes. 

Ques. 117. What are the fallopian tubes ? 

Ans. They are two small worm-like tubes, which re- 
ceive the rudiments "of the foetus from the ovaria, and 
convey them to the uterus. 

Ques. 118. Where are they situated? 

Ans. They proceed from the angles at the fundus uteri 
towards the lateral parts of the pelvis, being included in 
the anterior pinions of the ligamenta lata. 



249 

Ques. 119. What is the size of their cavity ? 

Ans. They hardly admit a large bristle into their cavi- 
ties at the opening into the uretus, but they become 
gradually larger toward the opposite extremities, which 
would admit a goose-quill. 

Ques. 120. How do they terminate ? 

Ans. They expand in the form of a membranous 
fringe, called fimbriae. 

Ques. 121. What is their direction? 

Ans. Towards the ovaria. 

Ques. 122. With what are the fallopian tubes con- 
nected i 

Ans. They are loose and unconnected, except when 
under the influence of impregnation, they expand and 
embrace the ovaria. 

Ques. 123. How are these tubes lined? 

Ans. By a very fine membrane, which is thrown into 
longitudinal folds. 

Ques. 124. What is their structure ? 

Ans. It seems to be spongy, somewhat resembling that 
of the uterus. 

Vagina. 

Ques. 125. What is the vagina ? 

Ans. It is a large fleshy tube, extending from the cervix 
uteri to the external parts. 

Ques. 126. Where is it situated ? 

Ans. It is placed behind and below the bladder and 
Urethra, before and above the termination of the rectum. 

Ques. 127. Where does the os uteri project into the 
vagina ? 

Ans. At its upper part. 

Ques. 128. To what part of the uterus is the vagina 
attached ? 

Ans. It is fixed to the neck of the uterus. 



250 

Ques. 129. With what parts is the vagina connected 
anteriorly ? 

Ans. It is firmly united to the urethra, and a more loose 
cellular membrane connects it with the bladder. 

Ques. 130. Where is it connected with the rectum ? 

Ans. Posteriorly at its lower part, by cellular substance. 

Ques. 131. Where has it a peritoneal covering? 

Ans. At its upper and posterior part. 

Ques. 132. What is its structure I 

Ans. Its substance is thick and strong ; it is lined in- 
ternally by a mucous membrane, which is thrown into 
numerous rugae. 



Arteries, Veins, and Nerves of the Uterus, Src 

Ques. 133. How is the uterus supplied with arteries ? 

Ans. By the hypogastric arteries, the ovaria by the 
spermatic arteries. 

Ques. 134. Whither do the veins of the uterus, fallo- 
pian tubes, and ovaria pass ? 

Ans. They correspond in name and distribution with 
the arteries. 

Ques. 135. Whence are the nerves of the uterus, fal- 
lopian tubes, and ovaria derived ? 

Ans. They receive their nerves from the lumbar, sacral, 
and sympathetic nerves. 



EXTERNAL PARTS. 

Pubis. 

Ques. 136. What is the name of the external parts 
taken collectively ? 

Ans. They are called the pudendum or vulva. 
Ques. 137. What is the pubis or mons veneris ? 



251 

Ans. It is that broad eminence, at the lower part of the 
hypogastrium, between the two groins, which, at the age 
of puberty, is covered with hair. 

Ques. 138. How is the pubis formed ? 

Ans. Its hairy integuments are made prominent by a 
particular thickness of the adipose membrane covering 
the fore part of the ossa pubis. 

Labia Pudendi. 

Ques. 139. What is the situation of the labia pu- 
dendi ? 

Ans. They reach from the middle of the lower part of 
the pubis to within an inch of the anus. 

Ques. 140. What are the points in which the labia 
meet termed ? 

Ans. They are called commissures. 

Ques. 141. What is the structure of the labia? 

Ans. They are formed by a large longitudinal fold of 
integuments, containing cellular substance and fat ; exter- 
nally they are covered with hair ; but the sides, which 
are turned towards each other, are smooth and lubricated. 

Ques. 142. What is the space between the inferior 
commissure of the labia and anus called ? 

Ans. The perineum. 

Ques. 143. What is the length of the perineum ? 

Ans. It measures about a large finger's breadth. 

Ques. 144. What parts are seen, when the labia are 
separated ? 

Ans. On separating the labia the following parts ap- 
pear : two longitudinal folds called nymphae ; at the angle 
formed superiorly by their junction a small fleshy body, 
called clitoris ; under this the opening of the urethra ; 
more inferiorly the opening of the vagina ; between 
which and the inferior commissure a depression, called 
fossa navicularis. 



252 



Nymphse. 

Ques. 145. What are the nymphae? 

Ans. They are two folds of the inner skin of the la- 
bia? 

Ques. 146. What is their situation? 

Ans. They are situated internal to the labia, and take 
nearly the same direction. 

Ques. 147. What is their shape ? 

Ans. They are narrow at their upper part, become 
broader as they descend, and contract at their lower ex- 
tremity. 

Ques. 148. What is their structure? 

Ans. They consist of a spongy cuticular substance, in- 
termixed with follicles. 

Ques. 149. Which of the extremities is most distant? 

Ans. Their lower extremities are distant from each 
other, their upper unite around the clitoris. 

Clitoris. 

Ques. 150. What is the clitoris? 

Ans. It is an oblong firm projecting body. 

Ques. 151. What is its situation? 

Ans. It is situated immediately under the superior com- 
missure of the labia. 

Ques. 152. By what is it enveloped? 

Ans. A duplicature of the internal membrane, called its 
praeputium, surrounds it at the beginning of the nymphae. 

Ques. 153. What is its structure? 

Ans. It consists, like the penis, of two corpora caver- 
nosa united together, anteriorly forming the glands, and 
divided posteriorly into two crura. 

Ques. 154. Where are its crura fixed? 

Ans. They are attached to the rami of the ossa pubis. 

Ques. 155. What is the use of the clitoris ? 



253 

Ans. It is capable of erection, which is effected in the 
same manner as in the penis, and it is supposed to be 
the chief seat of sensation in coition. 



Urethra. 

Ques. 156. Where is the urethra situated in females ? 

Ans. Between the nymphae and below the clitoris, just 
above the vagina. 

Ques. 157. What appearances have the sides of the 
orifice of the urethra? 

Ans, The orifice is slightly prominent and wrinkled. 

Ques. 158. Where are the lacunae of the urethra situ- 
ated. 

Ans. On the edges of its orifice ; there are also some 
internally. 

Ques. 159. What is the structure of the female ure- 
thra? 

Ans. It is a membranous tube of the same structure as 
in males. 

Ques. 160. How is the female urethra distinguished 
from the male ? 

Ans. It is not more than an inch in length, but it is 
wide ; it has no prostate gland. 



Orifice of the Vagina. 

Ques. 161. What is the situation of the orifice of the 
vagina ? 

Ans. It is placed immediately below the urethra, and 
above the fossa navicularis. 

Ques. 162. Is the orifice narrower than the rest of 
the vagina ? 

Ans. It is. 



254 

Ques. 163. What is particularly noticed in its under 
part ? 

Ans. A delicate membrane, called the hymen. 

Hymen. 

Ques. 164. What is the hymen ? 

Ans. It is a delicate membranous fold, of a semilunar 
form, whose cornua are turned upwards. 

Ques. 165. What part of it is pervious ? 

Ans. It does not completely close the vagina, being 
defective towards the urethra. 

Ques. 166. What are the carunculse myrtiformes ? 

Ans. When the hymen is torn in coitre, or otherwise, 
the remains form little small fleshy eminences, which are 
called carunculse myrtiformes. 

Ques. 167. What is the use of the hymen ? 

Ans. Its use is not evident; it is not, as has been 
supposed, a test of virginity. 



255 



ORGANS OF THE SENSES.. 



Ques. 1. What are the organs of the senses ? 

Ans. They are parts constructed to receive impressions 
from all external objects. 

Ques. 2. What are the names of the organs of the 
senses ? 

Aus. They are five in number, viz., first, for the sense 
of sight, the eyes ; secondly, for the sense of smell, the 
nose ; thirdly, for the sense of hearing, the ears ; fourthly, 
for the sense of taste, the mouth and tongue ; fifthly, for 
the sense of feeling, the skin. 



SECTION XXX. 



ORGAN OF VISION. 



Ques. 1. Of what does the organ of vision consist ? 

Ans. The organ of vision is two-fold, there being 
two eyes. 

Ques. 2. Where are the eyes situated ? 

Ans. They are situated in the orbits, surrounded by 
muscles, which move them, and an apparatus for tears ; 
these parts are called the appendages of the eye. 



256 



Orbits. 



Ques. 3. What are the orbits ? 

Ans. They are two conical, or funnel-like cavities. 

Ques. 4. Where are they situated ? 

Ans. On each side of the nose, just below the fore- 
head ; their bases are turned forward, aud obliquely 
outward. 

Ques. 5. Of how many bones is the orbit composed ? 

Ans. Each orbit is composed of parts of seven bones. 

Ques. 6. What are the names of the bones which 
compose the orbit ? 

Ans. The os frontis, os sphcenoides, os aethmoides, os 
maxillare superius, os malae, os lachrymale, and os palati. 

Ques. 7. What bones form its ridge or basis ? 

Ans. The os frontis, os maxillare superius, and os 
malae. 

Ques. 8. What bones form its apex ? 

Ans. The os sphcenoides, and os palati. 

Ques. 9. What bones form the sides of the orbit ? 

Ans. The os frontis above, the superior maxillary bone 
and the os malae below, the os lachrymale and os seth- 
moides towards the nose, and the os sphcenoides towards 
the temple complete its sides. 

Ques. 10. By what foramina is the orbit perforated? 

Ans. By three, viz., the foramen opticum, the fissura 
sphcenoidalis, and the fissura sphceno-maxillaris. 

Ques. 11. In what part of the orbit is the foramen 
opticum ? 

Ans. It is a large round hole at the apex. 

Ques. 12. Where is the sphcenoidal fissure, or foramen 
lacerum orbitale superius ? 

Ans. It is situated at the upper part of its external side. 

Ques. 13. Where is the sphceno-maxillary fissure, or 
foramen lacerum orbitale inferius ? 

Ans. It is situated at the lower part of its external side. 



257 

Ques. 14. From whence is the lining membrane of 
the orbit derived ? 

Ans. From the dura mater, and periosteum of the face. 



LACHRYMAL AND EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE EYE. 

Supercilia or Eye-brows. 

Ques. 15. Where are the supercilia situated? 

Ans. Upon the superciliary ridge of the frontal bone. 

Ques. 16. How are they formed? 

Ans. They consist of two arches of hairs, placed upon 
an additional portion of the adipose membrane. 

Ques. 17. How are they moved? 

Ans. By the occipito frontalis, and corrugator super- 
cilii muscles. 

Palpebrse or Eye-lids. 

Ques. 18. Explain the situation of the palpebral. 

Ans. They are placed transversely above and below 
the anterior portion of the globe of the eye. 

Ques. 19. Which is the largest? 

Ans. The superior one ; it is also the most moveable. 

Ques. 20. What are the points where the superior 
and inferior palpebrae meet denominated ? 

Ans. The outer and inner can thus. 

Ques. 21. Which is the largest? 

Ans. The inner one, or that towards the nose. 

Ques. 22. Of what are they composed ? 

Ans. They consist of common integuments, of the 
orbicularis palpebrarum muscle, of the cartilages called 
tarsi, which contain the ciliary glands, and of the cilia 
or eye-lashes. 

22* 



258 



Tarsi, 



Ques. 23. What are the tarsi ? 

Ans. They are thin cartilages. 

Ques. 24. Where are they situated ? 

Ans. At the edge, and in the substance of each eye-lid. 

Ques. 25. What is their form 1 

Ans. They are broader in the middle than at their ex- 
tremities : the tarsus of the upper eye-lid is the largest. 

Ques. 26. Which of the edges of the tarsi are the 
thickest ? 

Ans. Their ciliary edges, which are turned towards 
each other. 

Ques. 27. What is formed by the meeting of the 
ciliary edges ? 

Ans. A small groove, which conducts the tears to the 
inner canthus. 

Ques. 28. What is the appearance of their inner sides ? 

Ans. Their internal surface is grooved for the reception 
of the ciliary glands. 



Ciliary Glands. 

Ques. 29. What are the ciliary glands ? 

Ans. They are glands which secrete an unctuous 
matter, which lubricates the edges of the eye-lids. They 
have been called glandulae meibomiananae. 

Ques. 30. Where are they situated? 

Ans. On the inner side of the tarsi. 

Ques. 31. What is their form ? 

Ans. They appear like numerous white lines, taking 
a tortuous course to the edge of the eye-lids, where the 
openings of their ducts may be seen. 



259 



Cilia or Eye-lashes. 

Ques. 32. What are the cilia ? 

Ans. They are rows of pencil-like hairs. 

Ques. 33. Where are they situated ? 

Ans. On the edges of the eye-lids. 

Ques. 34. What is the course of the hairs of the cilia ? 

Ans. They diverge ; those of the upper eye-lids turn 
gradually upward, and those of the lower, which are 
shorter, take the opposite course. 

Ques. 35. Where are they the longest ? 

Ans. The middle hairs are longest : they diminish in 
size towards the corners. 

Lachrymal Apparatus. 

Ques. 36. What parts compose the lachrymal appa- 
ratus ? 

Ans. It is composed of the lachrymal gland, which 
secretes, and of the parts which convey away the tears ; 
viz., the caruncula lachrymalis, plica semilunaris, puncta 
lachrymalia, canaliculi lachrymales, lachrymal sac, and 
ductus ad nasum. 

Lachrymal Gland. 

Ques. 37. Where is the lachrymal gland situated ? 

Ans. In the depression behind and somewhat above 
the external angular process of the frontal bone. 

Ques. 38. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat flattened and divided into two 
lobes ; the greater of which is most external. 

Ques. 39. What is its course ? 

Ans. It has several excretory ducts, which descend 
almost parallel to each other through the substance of 



260 



the membrane which lines the upper eye-lid, and pierce 
it near the superior edge of the tarsus. 



Caruncula Lachrymalis. 

Ques. 40. What is the caruncula lachrymalis ? 

Ans. It is a little red eminence situated between the 
internal angle of the eye-lids and the ball of the eye. 

Ques. 41. What is its structure? 

Ans. It seems to be of a glandular structure. 

Ques. 42. What is its use? 

Ans. It secretes a yellowish oily matter, with which 
the hairs on its surface being coated detain any small 
bodies that float in the tears ; it also directs and assists 
the tears in their course. 

Ques. 43. Where is the lachus lachrymalis situated ? 

Ans. It is a depression between the caruncula lachry- 
malis, the eye-lids, and eye-ball. 

Ques. 44. What is its use ? 

Ans. It collects the tears to pass into the puneta la- 
chrymalia. 



Plica Semilunaris. 

Ques. 45. Where is the plica semilunaris ? 
Ans. It is situated between the caruncula lachrymalis 
and the ball of the eye. 

Ques. 46. What is its form ? 

Ans. It resembles the figure of a crescent. 

Ques. 47. What is the direction of its cornua ? 

Ans. They are turned towaid the puneta lachrymalia. 

Ques. 48. What is its use ? 

Ans. It serves to direct the tears towards the puneta. 



261 



Puncta Lachrymalia. 

Ques. 49. What are the puncta lachrymalia ? 

Ans. They are two small orifices situated one on the 
edge of each eye-lid, very near the inner angles, opposite 
to the cornua of the plica semilunaris, and precisely op- 
posite to each other. 

Ques. 50. How are they formed ? 

Ans. A minute cartilaginous circle surrounds them, 
and a fine membrane lines their orifices. 

Ques. 51. What parts of the opposite puncta lachry- 
malia touch where the eye-lids are closed ? 

Ans. Their outer edges. 

Ques. 52. What is their use ? 

Ans. They suck up the tears, and convey them to the 
lachrymal ducts. 

Canaliculi Lachrymales. 

Ques. 53. What are the canaliculi lachrymales ? 

Ans. They are two minute canals, sometimes called 
lachrymal ducts. 

Ques. 54. What is their situation ? 

Ans. They are placed between the puncta lachrymalia 
and the lachrymal sac. 

Ques. 55. What is their direction ? 

Ans. The superior first ascends, then gradually de- 
scends ; the inferior first descends, then gradually ascends ; 
they then meet and form a common tube, which opens 
into the lachrymal sac. 

Lachrymal Sac. 

Ques. 56. Where is the lachrymal sac situated ? 

Ans. Immediately below the inner canthus of the orbit, 
in a bony groove, or fossa, on the side of the upper part 
of the nose. 



262 

Ques. 57. How is this groove formed ? 

Ans By the nasal process of the superior maxillary 
and lachrymal bones superiorly; and by the os maxillare, 
lower part of the os lachrymale, and upper portion of the 
interior turbinated bone inferiorly. 

Que.. 68. What is the form of the lachrymal sac ? 

Ans. It is an oblong membranous bag. 

Ques. 59 Where is the lachrymal sac crossed by the 
tendon of the orbicularis palpebrarum ? 

Ans. About one fourth of its length is above the tendon 
of the orbicularis palpebrarum, and the rest below it 

Ques 60. Where do the lachrymal ducts open ?' 

Ans. Immediately behind the tendon of the orbicularis. 

Ques. 61 . Where does the ductus ad nasum commence ? 

Ans. It proceeds from its lower part. 

Ductus ad Nasum. 

Ques. 62.- Where is the ductus ad nasum situated 2 

Ans. It descends from the lachrymal sac into the nose 
in a bony groove. 

Ques. 63. How is this groove formed ? 

Ans. By the inferior part of the os lachrymale, and 
superior part of the inferior turbinated bone. 

Ques. 64. Where does the ducUis ad nasum terminate ? 

Ans Underneath and behind the anterior extremity of 
the inferior turbinated bone. 

Ques. 65. What is the course of the tears ? 

Ans. They are secreted by the lachrymal gland, and 
are poured, by its excretory ducts, over the anterior surface 
of the eye, which, in the movements of the eye-lids, they 
every where moisten; the puncta lachrymalia absorb 
them ; they are conveyed by the lachrymal ducts to the 
lachrymal sac, and through the ductus ad nasum thev 
pass into the nose. 



263 



The Globe of the Eye. 

Ques. 66. What is the form of the globe of the eye ? 

Ans. It is nearly of a spherical figure. 

Ques. 67. Where does it deviate from a true spheroid ? 

Ans. Its anterior transparent'part projecting somewhat, 
appears like the section of a lesser sphere. 

Ques. 68. Of what is the globe of the eye composed ? 

Ans. It is composed of membranes, or coats, filled with 
humours, or fluids, which prop its form. 

Coats of the Eye. 

Ques. 69. How many coats has the eye ? 

Ans. Six, viz., the tunica conjunctiva, tunica scle- 
rotica, cornea, tunica choroides, iris, and retina. 

Ques. '70. How are the coats of the eye generally 
classed ? 

Ans. They are divided into partial and complete coats : 
the conjunctiva, cornea, and iris belonging to the first ; and 
the sclerotica, choroides, and retina to the latter class. 

Tunica Conjunctiva. 

Ques. 71. What is the tunica conjunctiva? 
Ans. It is a very thin transparent membrane, which 
connects the eye-lids to the globe of the eye, and may be 
considered as common to both. 

Ques. 72. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It covers the anterior part of the ball of the eye, 
and the inner side of the eye-lids. 

Ques. 73. How is it divided ? 

Ans. Into the conjunctiva palpebrarum, and the con- 
junctiva oculi. 

Ques. 74. How is it connected to the ball of the eye ? 

Ans. By cellular membrane. 

Ques. 75. Where does it adhere most closely ? 

Ans. Over the cornea. 



264 



Tunica Sclerotica. 

Ques. 76. Where is the tunica sclerotica situated ? 

Ans. It is the most external, and by far the most dense 
coat of the eye ; it envelopes all the ball of the eye, ex- 
cept the portion anteriorly occupied by the cornea ; and 
posteriorly it is pierced by the optic nerve. 

Ques. 77. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It is of a firm, ligamentous structure. 

Ques. 78. Which part of it is the thickest ? 

Ans. Its posterior part. 

Ques. 79. Where are the muscles which move the 
eye-ball attached to this coat ? 

Ans. Towards its anterior part. 

Cornea. 

Ques. 80. What is the cornea ? 

Ans. It is the transparent anterior part of the globe of 
the eye. 

Ques. 81. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is firmly connected to the edge of the sclerotica, 
and appears like a watch-glass fixed in the edge of the case. 

Ques. 82. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is circular, and moie convex than the rest of 
the ball. 

Ques. 83. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It is divisible into several lamella?, between which 
a transparent fluid is noticed. 

Tunica Choroides. 

Ques. 84. What is the choroid coat ? 

Ans. It is the most vascular coat of the eye. 

Ques. 85. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is placed immediately within the sclerotic coat. 



265 

Ques. 86. Where does it commence ? 

Ans. At the entrance of the optic nerve ? 

Ques. 87. Where does it terminate ? 

Ans. Near the edge of the cornea, forming a whitish 
circle of some firmness, called the ciliary circle, and by 
which it adheres to the sclerotica. 

Ques. 88. What is remarkable at its anterior edge ? 

Ans. It appears thrown into numerous regular folds, 
called ciliary processes. 

Ques. 89. What is the pigmentum nigrum ? 

Ans. It is a black or dark brown secretion, which covers 
the internal surface of the choroid coat. 

Ques. 90. What are the blood vessels of this coat of 
the eye ? 

Ans. The ciliary arteries, after piercing the sclerotica, 
ramify copiously in this membrane ; its veins, taking a 
contorted course, are called vasa vortieosa. 



Iris. 



Ques. 91. What is the iris ? 

Ans. It is a circular membrane, with an opening through 
its centre, forming an imperfect septum across the cavity 
of the eye. 

Ques. 92. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is attached to the ciliary circle in its whole 
circumference. 

Ques. 93. What is the hole in its middle called ? 

Ans. The pupil, which is lessened or augmented by 
the movements of the iris. 

Ques. 94. What name has been given to the posterior 
side of the iris ? 

Ans. It has been called uvea ; this part is covered by 
the pigmentum nigrum. 

Ques. 95. What is the structure of the iris ? 
23 



266 

Ans. It consists of a radiated and circular layer of 
muscular fibres ; its arteries, from the ciliary, form by 
anastomosis two circles, — one near the circumference, 
called zona major, the other near the pupil, called zona 
minor ; its veins pass to the vasa vorticosa of the choroid. 

Retina. 

Ques. 96. What is the situation of the retina. 

Ans. It is placed internal to the choroid coat. 

Ques. 97. How does it arise ? 

Ans. From the termination of the optic nerve, of which 
it is an expansion. 

Ques. 98. Where does the retina terminate anteriorly ? 

Ans. It extends anteriorly nearly to the ciliary circle, 
terminating upon the edge of the chrystalline capsule. 

Ques. 99. At what part does the optic nerve terminate ? 

Ans. A little to the inner side of the centre of the retina. 

Ques. 100. What occupies the centre of the retina 
posteriorly ? 

Ans. The foramen of Soemmering, and the yellow zone 
surrounding it, are parts observable posteriorly, directly 
at the centre of the retina. 

Ques. 101. What is the structure of the retina? 

Ans, It is composed of a pulpy substance, of a bluish 
milky hue. 

Ques. 102. How is the retina supplied with blood? 

Ans. By a small artery, which occupies the centre of 
the optic nerve. 

Humours of the Eye. 

Ques. 103. Of how many humours does the eye con- 
sist, and what are their names ? 

Ans. Three transparent fluids of different densities 
form the humours of the eye ; they are called the aqueous, 
the chrystalline, and the vitreous humours. 



267 



Aqueous Humour. 

Ques. 104. What is the aqueous humour ? 

Ans. It is a perfectly transparent limpid fluid, situated 
behind the cornea and before the chrystalline. 

Ques. 105. How are the chambers of the eye formed ? 

Ans. The space which it occupies is divided by the 
iris into two cavities, called chambers, and which commu- 
nicate through the pupil. 

Ques. 106. Which is the largest? 

Ans. The anterior chamber is the largest of the two. 

Ques. 107. What is the use of the aqueous humour? 

Ans. This humour, while it transmits the rays of light, 
permits the free motions of the iris ? 



Vitreous Humour. 

Ques. 108. What is the vitreous humour ? 

Ans. It is the most bulky humour of the eye ; it appears 
of a jelly-like consistence, yet quite transparent. 

Ques. 109. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It occupies all the ball of the eye behind the 
chrystalline lens, which lies imbedded in its fore part. 

Ques. 110. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is spherical, except anteriorly, where it receives 
the chrystalline lens. 

Ques. 111. By what is it enveloped? 

Ans. It is surrounded by its peculiar capsule, called 
tunica vitrea, or hyoloidea, of the most delicate and 
transparent texture. 

Ques. 112. What is its internal structure ? 

Ans. It is divided, by numerous septa proceeding from 
the inner surface of its capsule, into numerous cells, which 
contain a fluid much resembling the aqueous humour. 



268 
Chrystalline Lens. 

Ques. 113. "What is the chrystalline lens ? 

Ans. It is of solid texture, situated in a concavity at the 
anterior part of the vitreous, behind the aqueous humour, 
opposite to the pupil. 

Ques. 114. What is its form? 

Ans. It resembles a lens or magnifying glass: its pos- 
terior surface is more convex and larger than the anterior. 

Ques. 115. By what is it enveloped? 

Ans. It has a proper capsule, which adheres firmly to 
the capsule of the vitreous humour. 

Ques. 116. What is its internal structure? 

Ans. It consists of concentric lamellae, and these of 
radii ; it is of the consistence of softened gum, but is found 
much firmer towards the centre than externally. 

Vessels and Nerves of the Eye. 

Ques. 117. From whence are the arteries of the eye 
derived ? 

Ans. Chiefly from the ophthalmic, a branch of the in- 
ternal carotid. 

Ques. 118. Whence are the nerves derived? 

Ans. The eye and its appendages are copiously sup- 
plied with nerves, for besides the optic, which forms the 
retina, the third and fourth pairs, the ophthalmic or first 
branch of the fifth pair, the sixth pair, and twigs from the 
seventh pair, go to the surrounding parts and form the 
ciliary plexus, whose branches pierce the sclerotica, and 
pass to the iris. 

Use of the Parts of the Eye. 

Ques. 119. What is the use of the cornea? 
Ans. It collects and bends inwards the rays of light re- 
flected towards it from surrounding objects. 



269 

Ques. 120. What is the use of the aqueous humour ? 

Ans. It allows the rays of light a ready passage, and 
admits freely of the motions of the iris. 

Ques. 121. What is the use of the chrystalline lens ? 

Ans. It still further concentrates the rays of light so as 
to make a distinct image at the bottom of the eye. 

Ques. 122. What is the use of the vitreous humour ? 

Ans. It fills the membranes, and supports the form of 
the eye, which is essential to the due performance of its 
office, and maintains the lens at its focal distance from the 
retina. 

Ques. 123. What is the use of the retina? 

Ans. It perceives the picture formed upon its surface 
by the due collection, refraction, and transmission of the 
rays of light. 

Ques. 124. What is the use of the choroid coat ? 

Ans. It is the vascular coat of the eye, allowing the 
ramification of vessels, and secreting the pigmentum 
nigrum. 

Ques. 125. What is the use of the pigmentum ni- 
grum ? 

Ans. It prevents the reflection of the rays of light when 
once they have reached the retina, and thus confusion is 
avoided. 

Ques. 126. What is the use of the iris ? 

Ans. By contracting, it excludes all the superfluous 
rays reflected from a luminous body, or by expanding, 
admits through the pupil all that pass through the cornea, 
in case any object should be sparingly lighted. 

Ques. 127. What is the use of the sclerotica ? 

Ans. It bounds the form of the eye, and by its strength 
protects and supports the parts which it contains. 



23 



270 



SECTION XXXI. 



OF THE ORGAN OF SMELL. 



Ques. 1. What is the organ of smell ? 

Ans. It is much more extensive than would be conjec- 
tured from the external prominent part called the nose. 
It is a double cavity divided by a perpendicular partition. 

Ques. 2. Where is it situated ? 

Ans. Between and below the orbits, above the mouth 
and below the forehead. 

Ques. 3. What is the division of the organ of smell ? 

Ans. It is divided into its external prominent part, 
properly called the nose, and its internal cavity. 

Ques. 4. What are the external parts of the nose ? 

Ans. It consists of the root of the nose, the arch of the 
nose, the tip of the nose, the alae, and the nostrils or an- 
terior openings of the cavity of the nose. 

Ques. 5. What are the internal parts of the nose ? 

Ans. Its internal part or cavity contains the septum 
narium, the turbinated bones, the posterior openings of 
the nares, the frontal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses, 
the palatine duct, and ductus ad nasum. 

Ques. 6. By what bones is the nose formed ? 

Ans. The os frontis, os aethmoides, os sphcenoides, 
ossa maxillaria, ossa nasi, ossa lachrymalia, ossa palati 
vomer, inferior turbinated bones and cartilages. 

Ques. 7. What are the soft parts of the nose ? 

Ans. They are the integuments, muscles, pituitary 
membrane, vessels, nerves, and hairs of the nares. 

Ques. 8. How is the root and arch of the nose 
formed ? 



271 

Ans. By the nasal process of the superior maxillare 
bone, and the ossa nasi. 

Ques. 9. Of how many cartilages does the inferior 
part of the external nose consist ? 

Ans. Of five. 

Ques. 10. What is their situation 1 

Ans. The middle one is part of the septum nasi ; it 
divides the nostrils ; two placed anteriorly form the tip, 
and two laterally the alae ; and these surround the nostrils. 

Ques. 11. What is the form and extent of the cavities 
of the nose ? 

Ans. The cavities of the nose extend from the nostrils 
to the posterior openings of the nares, immediately above 
the arch of the palate ; they extend upward to the cribri- 
form plate of the aethmoid bone, and there communicate, 
forward, with the frontal sinuses, and backward with the 
sphenoidal sinuses ; laterally, they are bounded on the 
inner side by the septum, and on the outer side by the 
maxillary, lachrymal, aethmoid, and turbinated bones ; 
above the latter they communicate with the maxillary 
sinuses. 



Pituitary Membrane. 

Ques. 12. How are the internal nare3 lined ? 

Ans. By the pituitary membrane. 

Ques. 13. What is its use ? 

Ans. It serves for the expansion of the olfactory and 
other nerves, for the transmission of vessels, and the se- 
cretion of the fluid which moistens its surface. 

Ques. 14. Where is it the thickest? 

Ans. Upon the septum narium, the turbinated bones, 
and the lower part of the nares. 



272 



Sinuses. 

Ques. 15. What sinuses open into the internal nares ? 
Ans. The frontal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses. 
Ques. 16. Where do the frontal sinuses open ? 
Ans. Into the anterior superior part of the nares. 
Ques. 17. Where do the sphenoidal sinuses open ? 
Ans. Into the superior posterior part of the nares. 
Ques. 18. Where do the maxillary sinuses open ? 
Ans. Laterally above the inferior turbinated bones. 

Ductus Incisivi. 

Ques. 19. What are the ductus incisivi ? 

Ans. In the human subject they usually exist only in 
the bones, and are filled by soft parts. 

Ques. 20. Where are they situated? 

Ans. Behind the large superior dentes incisivi, between 
the arch of the palate and the bottom of the nares. 

Ques. 21. What is their use ? 

Ans. They transmit several twigs of arteries and veins, 
and sometimes are perforated by ducts, the use of which 
is at present unknown. 

Blood Vessels and Nerves of the Nose. 

Ques. 22. Whence is the nose supplied with blood ? 

Ans. From the external carotids, the veins go to the 
external jugular. 

Ques. 23. What are the nerves of the nose ? 

Ans. The olfactory are the chief nerves of the nose, or 
the nerves of smelling ; but the nose also receives nerves 
of common sensation from the fifth pair. 



273 



SECTION XXXII. 



OF THE ORGAN OF HEARING. 



Ques. 1. Where is the organ of hearing situated ? 

Ans. The organ of hearing, commonly called the ear, 
is twofold, there being a distinct and perfect organ situated 
on each side of the head, the most important parts of 
which are formed in and contained by the temporal bone. 

Ques. 2. How is the organ of hearing divided ? 

Ans. Into the external and internal ear. 

External Ear. 

Ques. 3. How is the external ear composed ? 

Ans. It consists of a considerable cartilage, invested by 
common integuments. 

Ques. 4. Into what parts is the external ear divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into three parts, viz., the pinna, 
lobus, and meatus auditorius externus. 

Pinna. 

Ques. 5. What is the situation of the pinna ? 

Ans. It forms the greater part of the outer ear. 

Ques. 6. How is it formed ? 

Ans. It consists of cartilage, invested by common in- 
teguments. 

Ques. 7. What are the elevations on the pinna ? 

Ans. On its anterior or external side are four emi- 
nences ; namely, the helix, anti-helix, tragus, and anti- 
tragus. 



274 

Ques. 8. What is the situation of the helix ? 

Ans. It forms the large external margin or hem of the 
outer ear, and extends across its middle, 

Ques. 9. Where is the anti-helix ? 

Ans. It is the oblong elevation forming an inner margin, 
and immediately surrounded by the helix. 

Ques. 10. What is the tragus ? 

Ans. It is the small anterior protuberance below the 
anterior end of the helix. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the anti-tragus ? 

Ans. It is the posterior protuberance below the inferior 
end ot the anti-helix, and opposite the tragus. 

Ques. 12. What are the depressions of the pinna ? 

Ans. There are three depressions on the pinna, namely, 
the fossa navicularis, the fossa innominata, and the concha. 

Ques. 13. Where is the fossa navicularis ? 

Ans. It is placed in the bifurcation of the superior ex- 
tremity of the anti-helix. 

Ques. 14. Where is the fossa innominata ? 

Ans. It is situated between the anterior and superior 
extremities of the helix and anti-helix. 

Ques. 15. What is the concha? 

Ans. It is the great cavity surrounded by the anti-helix, 
and divided transversely by the anterior part of the helix, 
which on this account is called the septum conchae. 

Ques. 16. Where are the fissures in the cartilage of 
the pinna situated. 

Ans. When the integuments are removed there are 
four fissures noticed in the cartilage which forms the pin- 
na ; viz., one situated upon the anterior part of the helix ; 
one between the terminations of the helix and anti-helix, 
and two in the base of the tragus, or perhaps more pro- 
perly in the commencement of the meatus externus. 

Ques. 17. What are the ligaments of the pinna? 

Ans. There are three ligaments which fix it in its 
place ; namely, a superior, an anterior, and a posterior. 

Ques. 18. What are the glands of the pinna ? 



275 

Ans. The integuments of the pinna are plentifully sup- 
plied with sebaceous glands.* 

Lobulus. 

Ques. 19. What is the situation of the lobe of the 
ear? 

Ans. It forms the inferior extremity of the external 
ear. 

Ques. 20. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It consists of skin and cellular substance. 

Meatus Auditorius Externus. 

Ques. 21. What is the situation of the meatus audi- 
torius externus ? 

Ans. It extends from the bottom of the concha inward 
to the membrana tympani. 

Ques. 22. What is its direction ? 

Ans. Inward, forward, and upward; and is in its 
course a little curved downward. 

Ques. 23. What is its general length ? 

Ans. It is about an inch long. 

Ques. 24. Which of its portions is the largest ? 

Ans. It is wider at its extremities than in the middle. 

Ques. 25. What is the form of the bore of the meatus 
externus ? 

Ans. It is not quite circular but a little oval. 

Ques. 26. How is the meatus externus formed ? 

Ans. It consists in part of cartilage continued from the 
pinna, and in part of bone. 

Ques. 27. Which of its portions is the longest ? 

Ans. In the adult the bony portion is the longest ; but 
in the foetus the meatus auditorius is wholly cartilaginous. 

* The Muscles of the Ear have already been noticed under the 
general head of Muscles. 



276 

Ques. 28. Where are the fissures in the cartilaginous 
portion ? 

Ans. It has two fissures ; one of which is situated im- 
mediately under the tragus, the other at a little distance 
from it. 

Ques. 29. What glands are situated in the cellular 
membrane and integuments lining the meatus externus ? 

Ans. It is lined by a continuation of the integuments 
of the concha, under which the ceruminous glands are 
placed, especially towards the concha. 

Ques. 30. What is the use of these glands. 

Ans. They secrete the cerumen or ear wax, which is 
discharged through small excretory ducts into the meatus 
auditorius. 

Arteries, Veins, and Nerves of the External Ear. 

Ques. 31. From whence are the arteries of the exter- 
nal ear derived ? 

Ans. It receives its arteries anteriorly from the tem- 
poral, and posteriorly from the occipital arteries. 

Ques. 32. Whence do its veins pass ? 

Ans. To the external jugular. 

Ques. 33. Whence are its nerves derived ? 

Ans. From the portio dura and second vertebral pair. 

Internal Ear. 

Ques. 34. Into what parts is the internal ear divided ? 
Ans. It is divided into three parts ; namely, the tym- 
panum, labyrinth, and meatus internus. 



Membrana Tympani. 

Ques. 35. Where is the membrana tympani ? 

Ans. It is situated at the bottom of the meatus externus. 



277 

forming the external side of the tympanum ; it is fixed in 
a bony groove. 

Ques. 36= What is its direction and form ? 

Ans. It is of an oval form, placed obliquely ; its upper 
part being turned outward, and its lower part inward. 
It is slightly concave externally. 

Ques. 37. How is it composed? 

Ans. It is composed of two laminae, of which the in- 
ternal one is a production of the periosteum of the tym- 
panum, and the external one of the cuticle lining the 
meatus externus ; which by maceration may be removed 
like the finger of a glove. 

Ques. 38. What bone is attached to the inside of the 
membrana tympani ? 

Ans. The malleus, a very small bone contained in the 
tympanum ; across its upper part runs a small nerve, 
called chorda tympani. 

Tympanum. 

Ques. 39. Where is the cavity of the tympanum situ- 
ated ? 

Ans. Immediately within the membrana tympani in 
the substance of the temporal bone. 

Ques. 40. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is irregular, resembling a portion of a cylinder; 
its outer side is formed by the membrana tympani ; its 
inner side is bony, and divides this cavity from the la- 
byrinth ; its circumference is irregular. 

Ques. 41. What openings are there at the circumfer- 
ence of the tympanum ? 

Ans. There are two ; one anteriorly from the eusta- 
chian, and another posteriorly to the mastoid cells. 

Ques. 42. By what is the cavity of the tympanum 
lined ? 

24 



278 

Ans. By a vascular periosteum. 

Ques. 43. What are the contents of the cavity of the 
tympanum ? 

Ans." It contains air, and the ossicula auditus, with 
their muscles and ligaments. 



Eustachian Tube. 

Ques. 44. Where is the eustachian tube situated ? 

Ans. It extends from the cavity of the tympanum to 
the root of the pterygoid process of the sphcenoid bone ; 
here it opens into the upper part of the fauces, just behind 
the posterior nares. 

Ques. 45. Of what parts is it composed ? 

Ans. It consists of a bony, a cartilaginous, and a mem- 
branous portion. 

Ques. 46. What is the situation of the bony part of 
the eustachian tube ? 

Ans. The extremity towards the tympanum is wholly 
of bone ; of the rest, bone forms only the upper part. 

Ques. 47. What is the situation of the cartilaginous 
and membranous parts of the eustachian tube. 

Ans. Cartilage forms the internal, and membrane the 
external parts of its lower side. 

Ques. 48. Where is this tube the narrowest 1 

Ans. Its bony part is the narrowest ; it expands in the 
form of a trumpet towards the mouth. 

Ques. 49. What is the direction of the eustachian tube ? 

Ans. These tubes, one for each ear, are directed from 
the tympanum obliquely inwards, downwards, and for- 
wards ; so that their anterior extremities, in the fauces, 
are the nearest to each other. 

Ques. 50. By what are they lined ? 

Ans. By a membrane resembling that of the nares. 



279 
Mastoid Cells. 

Ques. 51. Into what part of the tympanum do the 
mastoid cells open ? 

Ans. Into the posterior and upper part, by a consi- 
derable aperture. 

Ques. 52. What is their structure ? 

Ans. In the adult they are wholly cellular. 

Ques. 53. By what are they lined, and what do they 
contain ? 

Ans. They are lined by a vascular periosteum, and 
contain air. 

Bones of the Ear. 

Ques. 54. Enumerate the bones of the ear. 

Ans. They are four in number, namely, the malleus, 
the incus, the os orbiculare, and the stapes. 

Ques. 55. What is their situation ? 

Ans. They form a kind of chain from the membrana 
tympani to the labyrinth. 

Ques. 56. In what order are the bones of the ear 
connected ? 

Ans. The most external is the malleus, situated next to 
the membrana tympani ; next to this is the incus ; then 
the os orbiculare ; and lastly, the most internal is the 
stapes. 

Malleus. 

Ques/ 57. What is the situation of the malleus ? 

Ans. It is placed upon the inner side of the membrana 
tympani, to which it is fixed by its handle. 

Ques. 58. What is its form ? 

Ans. It consists of a handle, attached to the membrana 
tympani, having its extremity turned downward ; a short 



280 

process at the top of the handle, also turned towards the 
membrana tympani ; a long process called processus gra- 
cilis, which is turned forward, over the inner edge of the 
ring of this membrane ; a neck which projects inward 
from the handle, forming an angle with it, and surmounted 
by a round head, by which it is connected to the incus. 

Ques. 59. What muscles are attached to the malleus ? 

Ans. It has three muscles ; namely, the tensor tympani, 
fixed to the posterior and upper part of its handle ; the 
laxator tympani major, attached to its long process ; and 
the laxator tympani minor, fixed near its short one. 



Incus. 

Ques. 60. What is the situation of the incus 1 

Ans. It is situated between the malleus and os orbi- 
culare, extending backward toward the mastoid cells. 

Ques. 61. What is its form? 

Ans. It consists of a body, a short and a long leg : its 
body is articulated with the head of the malleus ; its short 
leg rests on the opening of the mastoid cells, and its long 
leg bends inward and downward to the orbiculare. 



Os Orbiculare. 

Ques. 62. What is the size of the os orbiculare ? 

Ans. It is the smallest bone in the body, being not 
larger than a small pin's head. 

Ques. 63. What is its situation ? 

Ans. It is placed between the point of the long leg of 
the incus and the head of the stapes. 

Ques. 64. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is of a flattish circular form. 



281 
Stapes. 

Ques. 65. What is the situation of the stapes ? 

Ans. It is placed immediately behind the os orbiculare, 
and extends to the fenestra ovalis, on the inner side of the 
tympanum. 

Ques. 66. What is the form of the stapes ? 

Ans. It precisely resembles a stirrup, having a small 
head, which is fixed to the os orbiculare ; two legs, 
forming the arch, of which the posterior is longest, and 
which are grooved internally ; and a flat base, whose 
edge is curved superiorly, straight inferiorly, and fixed in 
the fenestra ovalis. 

Ques. 67. What occupies the space between the legs 
of the stapes ?. 

Ans. A fine membrane, which is fixed in the groove on 
their inner sides. 

Ques. 68. What is fixed to its head ? 

Ans. The stapedius muscle. 

Inner Side of the Tympanum. 

Ques. 69. What is the situation of the fenestra ovalis ? 

Ans. Toward the upper part of the inner side of the 
tympanum is an oval hole, placed horizontally, called 
fenestra ovalis. 

Ques. 70. What is fixed in it ? 

Ans. The basis of the stapes ? 

Ques. 71. What is the situation of the fenestra ro- 
tunda ? 

Ans. It is very small, placed toward the lower part, and 
covered by a membrane ; it is nearly circular. 

Ques. 72. Where is the promontary of the tympanum 
.situated ? 

Ans. Immediately over the fenestra rotunda. 
24* 



282 

Ques. 73. Where is the hollow bony pyramid of the 
stapedius situated ? 

Ans. Immediately behind the fenestra ovalis, near the 
circumference of the tympanum ; it is a small projection, 
with an opening at is apex ; it contains the stapedius. 

Ques. 74. What direction does the fallopian aqueduct 
assume on the inner side of the cavity of the tympanum ? 

Ans. It is marked by a rising, which passes first above 
the fenestra ovalis, then behind it and the fenestra rotunda. 

Ques. 75. Where is the elevation of the external semi- 
circular canal situated ? 

Ans. On the inner side of the opening of the mastoid 
cells ; it corresponds with a part of the labyrinth. 

Labyrinth. 

Ques. 76. What is the situation of the labyrinth ? 

Ans. It is situated within the substance of the petrous 
portion of the temporal bone. 

Ques. 77. Of what parts does it consist ? 

Ans. It consists of several contorted cavities, which 
communicate with each other, and are divided into three, 
viz. the vestibulum, semicircular canals, and cochlea. 

Ques. 78. What are the contents of the labyrinth ? 

Ans. These cavities contain thin periosteum, a pulpy 
membrane, formed by the ramifications of the portio 
mollis of the seventh pair of nerves, blood vessels, and a 
limpid fluid. 

Vestibulum. 

Ques. 79. What is the situation of the vestibulum ? 

Ans. It occupies the middle of the labyrinth ; the coch- 
lea being placed before, and the semicircular canals 
behind it. 

Ques. 80. What is its form ? 



283 

Ans. It is of an oval figure, but irregular, having an 
hemispherical depression, a semi-oval depression above, 
and a groove-like sulciform depression behind, leading to 
the aqueductus vestibuli. 

Ques. 81. What opening is there in the external side 
of the vestibulum ? 

Ans. The fenestra ovalis opens into its external side. 

Ques. 82. What are the openings on the posterior 
side ? 

Ans. There are six openings on its posterior side ; five 
great openings belonging to the semicircular canals, and 
one very small of the aqueduct of the vestibulum. 

Ques. 83. What opening is at the anterior side ? 

Ans. It is the opening which leads to the external or 
vestibular scala of the crochlea. 

Ques. 84. What is the direction of the aqueduct of 
the vestibulum? 

Ans. It passes in a curved direction backward and 
inward. 

Ques. 85. Where is the external opening of the aque- 
duct of the vestibulum ? 

Ans. It opens externally about half an inch behind the 
meaius internus, upon the posterior side of the os petrosum. 



Semicircular Canals. 

Ques. 86. Where are the semicircular canals situated? 
Ans. Behind the vestibulum. 
Ques. 87. What is their number ? 
Ans. They are three in number. 
Ques. 88. What are their names ? 
Ans. They are called the superior, posterior, and ex- 
ternal, or horizontal. 

Ques. 89. Where do they terminate ? 

Ans. They terminate in the vestibule by five open- 



284 

ings ; one end of the superior and another of the pos- 
terior canal meet and form a common opening ? 

Ques. 90. What are the ampullae of the semicircular 
canals ? 

Ans. Each canal has one of its extremities of an elip- 
tical form, and more expanded than the other, called its 
ampullae. 

Ques. 91. Where are the ampullae of the superior and 
posterior canals situated ? 

Ans. They are situated at their separate openings. 

Ques. 92. Where is the ampullae of the external canal 
situated ? 

Ans. At its superior or external opening. 

Cochlea. 

Ques. 93. Where is the cochlea situated? 

Ans. Immediately before the vestibulum, wtih its base 
towards the meatus auditorius internus. 

Ques. 94. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is a double spiral, conical canal, resembling the 
shell of a snail internally. 

Ques. 95. How many turns does the canal of the 
cochlea make ? 

Ans. It performs two turns and a half. 

Ques. 96. By what is the spiral canal of the cochlea 
divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into two by a septum, partly bony 
and partly membranous ; the bony part is called lamina 
spiralis, the membranous part zona mollis. The zona 
mollis proceeds from the edge of the lamina spiralis to 
the opposite side of the canal. 

Ques. 97. What are the names of the two parts into 
which the canal of the cochlea is divided ? 

Ans. They are called the gyri or scalae. 

Ques. 98. What is the relative situation of the scalae ? 



285 

Ans. One is situated externally, opens into the vesti- 
bule, and is called scala vestibuli ; the other is situated 
internally, terminates at the fenestra rotunda, and is called 
scala tympani. 

Ques. 99. Where do they communicate with each 
other ? 

Ans. At the apex of the cochlea they wind round a 
conical pillar called modiolus, 

Ques. 100. What is the infundibulum ? 

Ans. It is a small hollow cone surmounting the apex 
of the modiolus ; its basis is turned toward the apex of 
the cochlea, called cupola. 

Ques. 101. What is the situation of the lamina spiralis ? 

Ans. One edge of it is fixed to, and winds round the 
modiolus. 

Ques. 102. By what does the lamina spiralis termi- 
nate ? 

Ans. On its apex is a hook-like point, called hamulus. 
It terminates in the infundibulum. 

Ques, 103. How do the filaments of the portio mollis 
pass into the scalae ? 

Ans. By numerous small apertures on each side of the 
lamina spiralis and the modiolus. 

Ques. 104. Where are the branches of the portio 
mollis chiefly ramified ? , 

Ans. Upon the lamina spiralis and zona mollis. 

Meatus Jluditorius Internus. 

Ques. 105. Where is the meatus auditorius internus 
situated ? 

Ans. On the posterior side of the os petrosum. 

Ques. 106. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is a short tubular canal of some size, terminated 
by two fossulae. 

Ques. 107. How are these fossuloe distinguished ? 



286 

Ans. One of them is the superior and the other the 
inferior fossula. 

Ques. 108. How are they separated from each other ? 

Ans. By a spine or bony ridge. 

Ques. 109. What does the meatus interims contain ? 

Ans. The portio mollis and portio dura of the seventh 
pair of nerves, and a small artery. 

Ques. 110. Where does the fallopian aqueduct com- 
mence ? 

Ans. From the upper part of the superior fossula. 

Ques. 111. What is its course? 

Ans. It passes outward through the upper part of the 
os petrosum ; then bends downward and backward, lying 
on the inner side of the cavity of the tympanum behind, 
and above the fenestra ovalis. It terminates in the fora- 
men stylo-mastoideum. 

Ques. 112. What passes through the fallopian aque- 
duct ? 

Ans. The portio dura or fascial nerve. 

Ques. 113. By what nerve is the portio dura joined 
in the fallopian aqueduct ? 

Ans. It is joined first by a twig of the Vidian nerve, 
through a foramen on the upper and fore part of the os 
petrosum ; then by the chorda tympani, from the cavity 
of the tympanum. 

Ques. 114. Where is the portio dura joined by the 
Vidian nerve ? 

Ans. Just where it is about to turn downward over the 
inner side of the tympanum. 

Ques. 115. Where is the portio dura joined by the 
chorda tympani ? 

Ans. A little before it makes its exit by the foramen 
stylo-mastoideum. 

Ques. 116. What is the course of the chorda tympani ? 

Ans. It proceeds through the cavity of the tympanum 



287 



between the handle of the malleus and the long leg of the 
incus, and passes through the fissura glassed. 

Ques. 117. How is the portio mollis distributed? 

Ans. It enters by numerous small apertures, and is 
spread out within the labyrinth in the form of a delicate 
pulpy membrane, giving a lining to it in addition to the 
periosteum. 



Use of the Parts of the Ear. 

Ques. 118. What is the use of the pinna ? 

Ans. It collects the sonorous undulations of the air, 
and reflects them towards the meatus auditorius externus. 

Ques. 119. What is the use of the meatus auditorius 
externus ? 

Ans. It concentrates and conveys the sound to the 
membrana tympani. 

Ques. 120. What is the use of the membrana tym- 
pani ? 

Ans. It transmits the vibrations to the chain of bones 
contained in the cavity of the tympanum. 

Ques. 121. What is the use of the muscles of the in- 
ternal ear ? 

Ans. The muscles of the malleus and incus regulate 
the tension of the membrana tympani ; relaxing it to mo- 
derate sounds, and bracing it to perceive faint ones. 

Ques. 122. What is the use of the eustachian tube ? 

Ans. It admits the free passage of air into and from the 
cavity of the tympanum ; thus preserving a due balance 
with the external atmosphere, and enabling the membrana 
tympani to move in obedience to the slightest impres- 
sions. 

Ques. 123. What is the use of the ossicula auditus or 
chain of bones ? 

Ans. By their motions they multiply the vibrations 



288 

they receive from the membrana tympani, and transmit 
them to the fluid contained in the labyrinth. 

Ques. 124. What is the use of this fluid ? 

Ans. It being incompressible, faithfully transmits and 
conveys the undulations it receives all over the nervous 
membrane which lines the labyrinth. 

Ques. 125. What is the immediate organ of hearing; 
that which perceives the impressions of sound ? 

Ans. The portio mollis of the seventh pair of nerves, 
spread out in the form of a fine membrane within the la- 
byrinth ; it perceives the impressions of sound, and 
transmits them to the sensorium. 



SECTION XXXIII. 



OF THE MOUTH AND ORGAN OF TASTE. 

Ques. 1. What is meant by the mouth ? 

Ans. It does not, anatomically speaking, mean merely 
the transverse opening bounded by the lips, but the whole 
cavity to which this leads, as well as the parts adjacent. 

Ques. 2. What bones contribute to the formation of 
the mouth ? 

Ans. The superior and inferior maxillary bones, ossa 
palati, and the teeth, form its bony parts. 

Ques. 3. How is the mouth divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into external and internal parts. 



289 



External Parts of the Mouth. 

Ques. 4. What are the external parts of the mouth ? 

Ans. The two lips and the cheeks. 

Ques. 5. Of what do they consist ? 

Ans* They consist of muscles, covered externally by 
the common integuments and fat, and lined internally by 
a vascular membrane, called epithelium, which covers 
numerous glands. 

Ques. 6. What is the appearance of the edges of the 
lips ? 

Ans. They are turned towards each other, and are 
highly vascular and sensible, being supplied with nume- 
rous villi. 

Ques. 7. W^hat are the commissures of the lips ? 

Ans. They are formed by the union of the lips. 

Ques. 8. What is the fossula of the upper lip ? 

Ans. It is a groove extending from the septum narium ; 
in some subjects it is double. 

Ques. 9. What are the frama of the lips ? 

Ans. There is one for the upper, and one for the lower 
lip ; they are folds of the internal membrane which fix 
the lips to the jaws opposite the incisor teeth. 

Internal Parts of the Mouth 

Ques. 10. What are the internal parts of the mouth ? 
Ans. They are the gums, the palate, the tongue, the 
amygdalae, and the salival glands and ducts. 

Gums. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the gums ? 
Ans. They cover both the sides of the alveolar pro- 
cesses, and surround the necks of all the teeth. 

25 



290 

Ques. 12. What is their structure 1 

Ans. They are composed of a firm, spongy, elastic, 
and very vascular substance, firmly adhering, by means 
of periosteum, to the alveolar processes. 

Ques. 13. By what membrane are they invested ? 

Ans. By a fine membrane, which is a continuation of 
that which lines the lips and cheeks. 

Palate. 

Ques. 14. What is the situation and form of the pa- 
late ? 

Ans. It is surrounded by the teeth of the upper jaw, 
and extends to the great opening of the pharynx ; it re- 
sembles an arch. 

Ques. 15. How is it divided, and which part is most 
anterior ? 

Ans. It is divided into the hard and soft palate ; the 
hard palate is most anterior, and is composed of the pa- 
latine processes of the upper jaw and ossa palati. 

Ques. 16. By what membrane is the palate covered ? 

Ans. The membrane which covers it resembles that 
which lines the superior and middle parts of the pharynx ; 
it is studded with small glands. 

Ques. 17. How is the soft part of the palate formed ? 

Ans. The soft palate, or velum palati, is formed by a 
continuation of that membrane which lines the hard palate 
and the cavity of the nose, and by various muscles lying 
in this duplicature. 

Ques. 18. What is its form ? 

Ans. It resembles an arch, placed transversely above 
the root of the tongue, and forming anteriorly one conti- 
nued surface with the hard palate. 

Ques. 19. To what part is the uvula attached ? 

Ans. To its middle part. 

Ques. 20. What is its form ? 



291 

Ans. It is a conical body. 

Ques. 21. What is i*s structure ? 

Ans. It is formed by a small muscle enveloped in the 
glandular membrane which lines these parts. 

Ques. 22. What are the arches of the palate? 

Ans. They are two folds, which proceed downward 
and to each side ; so that the arch on each side is double. 

Ques. 23. In what direction do the two arches on 
each side proceed from the uvula ? 

Ans. The anterior arch runs towards the side of the 
basis of the tongue ; and the posterior toward the side of 
the pharynx. 

Ques. 24. What is situated between the anterior and 
posterior arch of the palate on each side ? 

Ans. An irregular glandular body, called the tonsil or 
amygdal gland. 



Tongue. 

Ques. 25. Into what parts is the tongue divided ? 

Ans. Into a basis and apex, a superior and inferior 
side, and two edges. 

Ques. 26. Of what is it composed ? 

Ans. It chiefly consists of soft muscular fibres, inter- 
mixed with a medullary or fatty substance. 

Ques. 27. By what membrane is the tongue invested? 

Ans. Its upper side consists of a thick membrane, 
studded all over with small eminences, and covered by a 
continuation of the cuticle ; it is likewise continued over 
the lower side, but here it is smooth, forming only a fold 
in the middle, called fraenum. 

Ques. 28. What are the papilla? ? 

Ans. The small eminences on its superior surface. 

Ques. 29. How many kinds of papillce are observable 
on the tongue ? 



292 

Ans. There are three kinds, distinguished by the va- 
riety in their figure. 

Ques. 30. Where are the papillae capitatae situated ? 

Ans. On the basis of the tongue, in small fossulae. 

Ques. 31. What is their form ? 

Ans. They resemble in miniature a mushroom, having 
a narrow neck, and being depressed in the middle. They 
secrete a salival or mucilaginous fluid. 

Ques. 32. Where are the semilenticulares papillae 
situated ? 

Ans. Chiefly in the middle and anterior parts of the 
tongue. 

Ques. 33. What is their form and size ? 

Ans. They are slightly convex and cylindrical, and 
next in size to the capitatae. 

Ques. 34. Where are the papillae velosae ? 

Ans. They occupy the whole surface of the upper side 
of the tongue, and even the interstices of the other pa- 
pillae. 

Ques. 35. What is their form and size ? 

Ans. They are of a conical form, and the smallest pa- 
pillae of the tongue. 

Salival Glands. 

Ques. 36. Enumerate the salival glands, their situa- 
tion and use. 

Ans. They are three in number ; namely, the parotid, 
the submaxillary, and the sublingual ; they are situated 
on each side of the face, and secrete the saliva or spittle. 

Ques. 37. What other glands contribute to augment 
the juices of the mouth ? 

Ans. There are numerous glands distributed under the 
membrane, lining all parts of the mouth, which perform 
this office. They are named from the parts on which 
they are situated ; namely, the labial on the inside of the 



293 

lips, the palatine on the palate, the lingual on the tongue, 
the buccal on the inside of the cheeks, &c, &c. 

Parotid Glands. 

Ques. 38. Where is the parotid gland situated ? 

Ans. It is the largest of the lateral glands ; it is situated 
between the external ear and the ramus and angle of the 
lower jaw, extending over some part of the masseter. 

Ques. 39. From what part of the gland does its duct 
proceed ? 

Ans. Its excretory duct, called Steno's duct, arises 
from several lesser ducts at its anterior and upper part. 

Ques. 40. What is its course ? 

Ans. It passes obliquely over the outside of the mas- 
seter muscle. 

Ques. 41. Where does this duct open into the mouth? 

Ans. It perforates the cheek, and opens into the mouth 
opposite the interstice, between the second and third 
molar teeth. 

Sub-maxillary Glands. 

Ques. 42. Where is the sub-maxillary gland situated? 

Ans. On the inside of the angle of the lower jaw, near 
the internal pterygoid muscle. 

Ques. 43. From whence does its excretory duct pro- 
ceed ? 

Ans. From that side of the gland which is turned to 
the hypo-glossus. It is called Wharton's duct. 

Ques. 44. What is its course ? 

Ans. It advances between the genio-glossus and mylo- 
hyoideus muscles, under the sublingual glands. 

Ques. 45. Where does this duct open ? 

Ans. On one side of the fraenum of the tongue. 
25* 



294 



Sublingual Glands. 

Ques. 46. Where are the sublingual glands situated? 

Ans. Under the anterior poition of the tongue, between 
the genio-glossus and mylo-hyoideus muscles. 

Ques. 47. Where do its ducts terminate ? 

Ans. It has several small ducts, which open close under 
the side of the tongue, near the gums, a little farther back 
than the frsenum. 



Amygdalse or Tonsils. 

Ques. 48. Where are the amygdalae situated ? 

Ans. In the interstice between the arches of the palate 
on each side. 

Ques. 49. What is the form of the amygdalae? 

Ans. They somewhat resemble the outside of an 
almond shell, being uneven and covered with several 
foramina ; they are filled with numerous and large fol- 
licles. 

Ques. 50. What is their use ? 

Ans. They secrete a viscid fluid. 



Thyroid Gland. 

Ques. 51. Where is the thyroid gland situated? 

Ans. On the anterior and inferior part of the neck : 
its middle portion lies on the crico-thyroidei, and its la- 
teral portions on the thyro-hyoidei muscles. 

Ques. 52. What is its form ? 

Ans. It seems to be composed of two oblong portions., 
united by their inferior extremities, so as to have some 
resemblance to a crescent* 



295 

Ques. 53. What is its use ? 

Ans. Its use is not understood ; it is perhaps connected 
with the glands of the mouth. 



SECTION XXXIV. 

OF THE SKIN, AND OF THE ORGANS OF TOUCH. 

Ques. 1. Of what parts does the integument consist! 

Ans. It consists of three parts, namely, the cuticle, rete 
mucosum, and cutis ; having in most parts the adipose 
substance situated under them. 

Ques. 2. What is the relative situation of the cuticle, 
rete mucosum, and cutis ? 

Ans. The cuticle is the most external ; immediately 
under it lies the rete mucosum, covering the cutis, which 
is the most internal, and by much the most thick. 

Cutis. 

Ques. 3. What is the structure of the cutis ? 

Ans. It consists of a close intermixture of fibres, plen- 
tifully supplied with blood vessels and nerves ; it is 
thickest in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. 

Ques. 4. What are the papillae of the skin ? 

Ans. They are numerous small eminences on its ex- 
ternal surface, in which the capillary filaments of the 
cutaneous nerves terminate in radiated pencils ; they arc 



296 

most prominent on the palms of the hands and soles of 
the feet, and on the fingers and toes. 

Ques. 5. In what form are they arranged ? 

Ans. In double rows, which are regularly placed as 
parallel, crooked, waving, or spiral lines, on the red part 
of the lips ; they resemble fine hairs or villi. 

Ques. 6. Where is the sense of touch the most acute ? 

Ans. The papillae are the parts in which the sense of 
touch resides ; it is more particularly acute at the ends 
of the fingers, where the regular concentric rows of the 
papillae are remarkable. 

Ques. 7. Where are the sebaceous follicles situated? 

Ans. They exist in the substance of the skin, and open 
on its surface. 

Ques. 8. Where are they most conspicuous ? 

Ans. About the nose, cheeks, ears, armpits, groins, 
and genitals. 

Ques. 9. What is their use ? 

Ans. They secrete an unctuous fluid, which protects 
the skin from the effects of heat and friction. 

Ques. 10. What are the other openings in the cutis ? 

Ans. They are for the hairs, and others very minute 
called pores, which are the terminations of the exha- 
lent vessels. 

Bete Mucosum. 

Ques. 11. What is the rete mucosum? 

Ans. It is a delicate substance situated every where 
between the cuticle and cutis, surrounding the papillae of 
the cutis, and lying in the interstices between them. 

Ques. 12. What is its colour? 

Ans. It is white in the Europeans and Northern Asiatics, 
but black or brown in the Indians, Africans, and others ; 
so that it is the seat of colour. 



297 



Cuticle. 

Ques. 13. What is the cuticle? 

Ans. It is a delicate transparent membrane, covering' 
the rete mucosum and cutis ; it is thickest in the palms of 
the hands, and soles of the feet ; it dips in betwixt every 
minute fold of the cutis, and into every aperture on its 
surface. 

Ques. 14. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It does not appear to be organized, nor does it 
possess any sensibility. 



Adipose Substance. 

Ques. 15. Where is the adipose substance situated? 

Ans. It occupies the cellular membrane in various parts 
of the body, but a layer of it is uniformly found closely 
adhering to the cutis, in most parts, and on this account 
it has been by many considered as part of the common 
covering. 

Ques. 16. What parts of the skin are free from, it? 

Ans. The skin of the eyelids, penis, and scrotum ? 

Ques. 17. What is its structure ? 

Ans. It consists of an oleaginous fluid, contained in 
distinct cells, which do not appear to have any commu- 
nication with each other. 

Ques. 18. Where is its distinct cellular structure most 
remarkable ? 

Ans. Under the skin, where it puts on a granulated 
appearance ? 

Ques. 19. What is its use ? 

Ans. It serves as a reservoir of nourishment, iills in- 
terstices, guards against pressure, and lessens the specifi; 
gravity of the body. 



298 



Nails. 



Ques. 20. Of what are the nails a continuation ? 

Ans. They are considered as a continuation of the 
cuticle ; they appear as if implanted under a fold of the 
cutis, and adhere to a similar doubling of the cuticle. 

Ques. 21. What is their structure ? 

Ans. They resemble horn in their structure. 

Ques. 22. How are the nails formed ? 

Ans. They grow from the surface of the true skin, on 
which they lie, and their fibres shoot forward from their 
roots. 

Hairs. 

Ques. 23. Where are the bulbs of the hair situated ? 

Ans. The hairs grow from roots, called bulbs, which 
are situated in the cutis ; they are small pulpy bodies, 
invested by a membrane. 

Ques. 24. How do the hairs pass from the cutis ? 

Ans. They proceed betwixt the papillae, and pierce the 
cuticle. 

Ques. 25. What is the structure of the hair ? 

Ans. Each hair appears to be a bundle of minute filia- 
ments, covered by a membrane. 



299 



SECTION XXXV. 



OF THE BRAIN IN GENERAL, AND OF ITS MEMBRANES, 

Ques. 1. Where is the brain situated? 

Ans. It is all that pulpy mass, which, with the mem- 
branes that invest it, fills the cavity of the cranium. 

Ques. 2. How is the brain divided ? 

Ans. Into the cerebrum and cerebellum. 

Ques. 3. By what membranes is the brain enveloped ? 

Ans. It is enveloped by three membranes, namely, the 
dura mater, tunica arachnoides, and pia mater. 

Dura Mater. 

Ques. 4. What is the situation of the dura mater. 

Ans. The dura mater is the most external, and by far 
the most dense, of the three membranes ; it lines the 
inside of the cranium, to which it firmly adheres, and 
separates and supports the various portions of the brain 
by means of duplicatures or processes ; it consists of two 
laminae. 

Ques. 5, What are the adhesions of the external layer 
of the dura mater ? 

Ans. It adheres every where to the internal surface of 
the cranium, but most firmly at its sutures. 

Ques. 6. How does the internal differ from the ex- 
ternal layer. 

Ans. It forms a smooth, polished, and lubricated 
surface. 

Ques. 7. How are the processes of the dura mater 
formed ? 



300 

Ans. They are formed by large duplicatures of the 
internal lamina. 

Ques. 8. What are the chief processes of the dura mater ? 

Ans. The falx cerebri, the tentorium, the falx cerebelli, 
and the sphenoidal folds. 

Ques. 9. What are the sinuses of the dura mater ? 

Ans. The two laminae firmly adhere to each other, 
excepting opposite the duplicatures of the' internal one, 
^vhere triangular channels are formed, called the sinuses 
of the dura mater ; these are the venous reservoirs of 
the brain. 

Falx. 

Ques. 10. What is the situation of the falx cerebri? 

Ans. It forms a partition along the upper and middle 
part of the cavity of the cranium, extending from the edge 
of the crista galli, along the sagittal suture, to the middle 
of the tentorium, 

Ques. 11. What is its form ? 

Ques. Its shape is that of a half crescent; the broadest 
part or basis of whieh is turned backwards, and joins the 
tentorium. 

Ques. 12. What portions of the brain does it separate ? 

Ans. It passes between the hemispheres of the cere- 
brum, so that it supports either in the various positions 
of the head. 

Tentorium. 

Ques. 13. What is the situation of the tentorium ? 

Ans. It is stretched across the anterior part of the 
cavity, being fixed to the os occipitis, along the grooves 
of the lateral sinuses, and to the angles of the ossapetrosa, 
as far as the posterior clynoid process of the os sphce- 
noides. 



301 

Ques. 14. Where is it the broadest? 

Ans. At its middle, where it is united to the falx cerebri. 

Ques. 15. What portions of the brain does it separate ? 

Ans. It separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum, 
and supports the posteiior lobes of the former. 

Ques. 16. What is remarkable at its anterior part ? 

Ans. At its anterior part there is an oval notch, through 
which pass the parts which unite the cerebrum and cere- 
bellum. 

Falx Cerebetti. 

Ques. 17. Where is the falx cerebelli situated ? 

Ans. It descends from the middle of the tentorium, 
along the inner spine of the os occipitis to the foramen 
magnum. 

Ques. 18. What portions of the brain does it separate ? 

Ans. It is placed between the hemispheres of the 
cerebellum. 

Sphenoidal Folds. 

Ques. 19. Ennumerate the sphenoidal folds of the 
dura mater. 

Ans. There are two lateral folds, one on each side of 
the sella turcica, joining the anterior and posterior clynoid 
processes ; also two anterior folds at the edges of the 
sphenoidal fissures. 

Ques. 20. What are the uses of these folds ? 

Ans. The lateral ones form the fossula for the pituitary- 
gland, and the anterior ones divide the anterior from the 
middle lobes of the cerebrum. 



26 



302 



Elongations of the Dura Mater. 

Ques. 21 . What are the elongations of the dura mater ? 

Ans. They are productions of both its laminae, which 
pass out of the cranium by various apertures. 

Ques. 22. Which are the chief elongations of the 
dura mater ? 

Ans. The most important passes through the great fo- 
ramen, and lines the great canal of the vertebrae ; the 
others pass out along with the cerebral nerves. 

Sinuses of the Dura Mater. 

Ques. 23. What are the sinuses of the dura mater ? 

Ans. They have been noticed as triangular canals, or 
venous reservoirs, placed in the substance of that mem- 
brane, and formed by the separation of its two layers. 

Ques. 24. What are the names of the chief sinuses or 
veins of the dura mater ? 

Ans. The great sinuses are the superior longitudinal, 
in the convex edge of the falx cerebri, terminating in the 
two lateral sinuses, which are situated in the convex edge 
of the tentorium ; the torcular Herophili, formed between 
the basis of the falx cerebri and the middle of the ten- 
torium: the lesser sinuses are, the inferior longitudinal, 
the occipital, the superior and inferior petrosal, the 
cavernous, and the circular around the sella turcica. 

Arteries and Nerves of the Dura Mater. 

Ques. 25. How are the arteries of the dura mater 
distinguished ? 

Ans. Into the anterior, middle, and posterior. 

Ques. 26. Whence are the anterior arteries of the dura 
mater derived ? 



30C 

Ans, They come from those of the orbit. 

Ques. 27. Whence is the middle artery of the dura 
mater derived ? 

Ans. It is a branch of the external carotid. 

Ques. 28. Whence are the posterior arteries of this 
membrane derived ? 

Ans. From the vertebral arteries. 

Ques. 29. From whence does it receive its nerves? 

Ans. From the trunk of the fifth pair, at its entry into 
the cavernous sinus, and from the eighth pair, as it passes 
out of the cranium. 

Pia Mater, 

Ques. 30. What is the situation of the pia mater ? 

Ans. It surrounds and closely invests the whole mass 
of the brain ; it consists of two laminae. 

Ques. 31. What is the external laminae called? 

Ans. The tunica arachnoides ; it is a delicate trans- 
parent membrane, and is spread uniformly over all the 
convex surface of the brain. 

Ques. 32. How is the internal lamina of the pia mater 
distributed ? 

Ans. The internal lamina, to which the name of pia 
mater is now confined, forms numerous plicae, dupli- 
catures, and septa, which pass every where between the 
folds of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; it is highly vas- 
cular, allowing the vessels of the brain to ramify in it, 
before they enter that substance. 



304 



SECTION XXXVL 



OF THE CEREBRUM. 



Ques. 1. In what part of the cranium is the cerebrum 
situated? 

Ans. It occupies the greater or superior division of the 
cavity, above the tentorium, resting also on the anterior 
and middle parts of the basis cranii. 

Ques. 2. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat of an oval form, convex above, and 
flat below. 

Ques. 3. How is it divided ? 

Ans. It is divided above into two lateral portions, called 
hemispheres, between which the falx cerebri is placed ; 
and below it is divided into two anterior, two middle, and 
two posterior lobes, by transverse depressions. 

Ques. 4. What is the situation of the anterior lobes ? 

Ans. They are situated in the anterior fossa of the 
basis cranii. 

Ques. 5. Where are the middle lobes placed ? 

Ans. In the middle fossae of the basis cranii. 

Ques. 6. What is the situation of the posterior lobes X 

Ans. They rest on the tentorium. 

Ques. 7. What is the fissure between the anterior and 
middle lobes called ? 

Ans. The fissura magna silvii. 

Ques. 8. What is the appearance of the external 
surface of the cerebrum ? 

Ans. It every where consists of tortuous eminences,, 
resembling the windings of the intestines ; these are called 
its convolutions. 



305 

Ques. 9. What are the anfractuosities of the brain ? 

Ans. They are the grooves which separate the convo- 
lutions, which, though apparently shallow, penetrate 
deeply into the substance of the brain; into these pass 
the duplicatures of the pia mater. 

Ques. 10. Of what substances does the cerebrum 
consist ? 

Ans. It consists of two kinds of substance ; an external, 
called cortical or cineritious, and an internal, called 
medullary. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the cortical or cine- 
ritious substance. 

Ans. It is of a reddish ash colour ; it forms the circum- 
volutions, and dips down into the anfractuosities. 

Ques. 12. What is the colour and situation of the 
medullary substance ? 

Ans. It is of a milk-white hue, and constitutes the 
internal mass of the brain. 



Corpus Callosum. 

Ques. 13. What is the situation of the corpus callosum ? 

Ans. It is an oblong white body, situated at the bottom 
of the fissure which divides the two hemispheres ; it is 
covered by the pia mater. 

Ques. 14. What is seen on the surface of the corpus 
callosum ? 

Ans. A groove, which runs along its middle, called the 
rapha ; it is bounded on each side by a small medullary 
chord. 

Ques. 15. What does the corpus callosum join on 
each side ? 

Ans. Its edges blend with the medullary substance of 
the two hemispheres. 

26* 



306 

Ques. 16. What names are given to the medullary 
substance of both hemispheres, together with the corpus 
callosum ? 

Ans. By cutting off the hemispheres of the cerebrum 
nearly even with the corpus callosum, there is seen a large 
oval mass of medullary substance, called the centrum ovale, 
of which the corpus callosum forms the middle part, and 
the sides are called the medullary arches. 

Lateral Ventricles. 

Ques. 17. What are the lateral ventricles ? 

Ans. They are two cavities, situated under the corpus 
callosum, and medullary arches of the cerebrum. 

Ques. 18. What is their form ? 

Ans. The general course of these cavities would be 
represented by the letter X, or two C's turned back to 
back ; they are broad and round at their anterior and su- 
perior extremities ; they then extend backwards, gradually 
separating from each other, and contracting ; they then 
bend downward, after having sent backward a triangular 
pointed cavity, which slightly turns inward, called cavitas 
digitalis, or posterior horn ; they lastly turn forward, and 
terminate under their superior extremities, only more 
backward and outward. 

Ques. 19. What divides the lateral ventricles from 
each other ? 

Ans. At the part where they are nearest each other, 
which is just under the corpus callosum ; there is a delicate 
partition interposed between them, called the septum 
lucidum. 

Ques. 20. What are the parts noticed in the lateral 
ventricles ? 

Ans. They are the septum lucidum, the fornix, the 
plexus choroides, the corpora striata, the thalami nervorum 
opticorum, and the pineal gland. 



307 



Septum Lucidum. 

Ques. 21. To what bodies is the septum lucidum 
connected ? 

Ans. It is united to the corpus callosum directly under 
the rapha, and to the fornix inferiorly. 

Ques. 22. How is the septum lucidum composed ? 

Ans. It consists of two laminae. 

Ques. 23. What is the name of the cavity, situated 
between the laminae of the septum lucidum 1 

Ans. The fifth ventricle. 

Fornix. 

Ques. 24. What is the fornix ? 

Ans. It is a medullary body, situated immediately 
under the septum lucidum. 

Ques. 25. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is of a triangular figure, one of its edges being 
posterior, and two lateral. 

Ques. 26. What are its connections ? 

Ans. It is connected by its superior surface to the septum 
lucidum, and by its posterior edge to the corpus collosum, 
of which it is a continuation. 

Ques. 27. What are the continuations of its angles 
called ? 

Ans. They are called pillars, or crura. 

Ques. 28. What names do the posterior pillars assume 
in the lower part of the lateral ventricles ? 

Ans. The posterior pillar on each side follows the 
course of the ventricles backward and downwards, in the 
form of a thin medullary edge, called corpus fimbriatum. 

Ques. 29. How do the anterior pillars terminate ? 

Ans. The anterior pillar is double ; it dips down at the 
forepart of the ventricle. 



308 

Ques. 30. What is the appearance of the inferior sur- 
face of the fornix ? 

Ans. Its inferior surface rests on the thalami nervorum 
opticorum, and is covered by transverse prominent medul- 
lary lines called lyra. 

Choroid Plexus. 

Ques. 31. What is the choroid plexus ? 

Ans. They are two loose membranous bodies, of a red 
and reticular or plexiform appearance. 

Ques. 32. What is their situation in the lateral ven- 
tricles ? 

Ans. They begin small, under the anterior part of the 
fornix, where they are united ; as they pass backwards, 
they increase and extend themselves throughout the whole 
course of these ventricles. 

Ques. 33. How are they composed? 

Ans. They are continuations of the pia mater, highly 
vascular, and containing several tubercles, like glands, 
and often little hydatids. 

Ques. 34. W r hat parts are exposed by the removal of 
the fornix and choroid plexus ? 

Ans. The eminences of the lateral ventricles, viz., the 
corpora striata, and the thalami nervorum opticorum. 

Corpora Striata. 

Ques. 35. What is the situation and form of the cor- 
pora striata ? 

Ans. They are placed at the bottom of the anterior 
and outer part of the lateral ventricles ; in shape they are 
pyriform. 

Ques. 36. What parts of the corpora striata are nearest 
each other ? 

Ans. Their anterior large extremities are separated 



309 

from each other only by the septum lucidum ; but poste- 
riorly they are at a much greater distance. 

Ques. 37. What is the internal structure of the corpora 
striata ? 

Ans. They are composed of alternate striae of the 
medullary and cortical substances. 

Thalami Nervorum Opticorum. 

Ques. 38. What is the situation of the thalami ner- 
vorum opticorum ? 

Ans. They are situated between the posterior extre- 
mities of the corpora striata. 

Ques. 39. What is their form ? 

Ans. They are convex superiorly, and of an oval shape ; 
but their internal sides are flat, smooth, and in contact. 

Ques. 40. How are the thalami nervorum opticorum 
connected ? 

Ans. They are joined at the middle and anterior part 
of their internal sides by the commissura mollis, a short 
chord of soft substance. 

Ques. 41. What is the tenia semicircularis ? 

Ans. It is a white, prominent line, lodged in the groove 
formed between the corpus striatum and thalamus, on 
each side. 

Ques. 42. What is the internal structure of the thalami 
nervorum opticorum. 

Ans. Their external surface is white ; but internally they 
are composed of medullary and cineritious substance. 

Pedes Hippocampi. 

Ques. 43. What are the pedes hippocampi. 
Ans. They are two medullary protuberances of a semi- 
cylindrical form. 

Ques. 44. Where are they situated ? 



310 

Ans. In the posterior contorted part of the lateral 
ventricles. 

Ques. 45. What is the course of the pedes hippocampi ? 

Ans. They describe a curve, whose convexity is di- 
rected outwards, following the course of the ventricles. 

Ques. 46. What is remarkable on their inner edges ? 

Ans. The corpora fimbriata run along their internal 
concave edges. 

Ques. 47. How do they terminate ? 

Ans. Their terminations at the extremity of the ventricles 
are rounded, and present two or three little smooth tubercles. 

Ques. 48. Of what are they composed ? 

Ans. They are composed of medullary substance ex- 
ternally, and of cortical substance internally. 

Hippocampus Minor. 

Ques. 49. What is the hippocampus minor ? 

Ans. It is an oblong medullary protuberance, situated 
in the cavitas digitalis, or posterior horn of each ventricle. 

Ques. 50. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is of the same form* and takes the same course, 
as the cavity. 

Ques. 51. With what is it connected? 

Ans. It is connected with the posterior pillar of the 
fornix, from which it seems to proceed. 

Pineal Gland. 

Ques. 52. Where is the pineal gland situated 1 

Ans. Behind the thalami nervorum opticorum, and 
above the tubercular quadrigemina, under the posterior 
part of the fornix. 

Ques. 53. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is irregularly round, and sometimes of a conical 
orm. 



311 

Ques. 54. How is it connected ? 

Ans. It is connected to the lower part of the thalami, 
by two medullary peduncles. 

Ques. 55. What is its internal structure ? 

Ans. It consists mostly of cortical substance, and gene- 
rally contains a gritty matter ? 

Ques. 56. What is situated below the pineal gland ? 

Ans. Its base is connected with the posterior com- 
missure of the cerebrum, which is a transverse medullary 
chord towards the posterior part of the third ventricle. 

Tubercula Quadrigemina. 

Ques. 57. Where are the tubercula quadrigemina 
situated ? 

Ans. They are two pairs of medullary eminences, situ- 
ated behind the thalami nervorum opticorum, and under 
the pineal gland. 

Ques. 58. What is their form ? 

Ans. Each is transversely oblong ; the superior, called 
nates, being a little more rounded and broader than the 
inferior, called testes. 

Ques. 59. What is their structure ? 

Ans. Their surface is medullary ; their inner substance 
cineritious. 

£perlures in the Lateral Ventricles. 

Ques. 60. What is the foramen of Monro ? 

Ans. It is an aperture of communication, between the 
two lateral ventricles. 

Ques. 61. Where is it situated ? 

Ans. Just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix, and 
over the fore part of the third ventricle. 

Ques. 62. What is the foramen commune anterius, 
or vulva ? 



312 

Ans. It is an opening of communication with the third 
ventricle. 

Ques. 63. Where is it situated ? 

Ans. Before the thalami, behind the anterior com- 
missure, and just under the foramen of Monro. 

Ques. 64. What is the foramen commune posterius, 
or anus ? 

Ans. It is stopped by the choroid plexus ; when the parts 
are in their natural situations, it is situated before the 
posterior commissure, and behind the thalami. 

Third Ventricle, 

Ques. 65. Where is the third ventricle situated ? 

Ans. It is the space between the thalami nervorum 
opticorum. 

Ques. 66. Where does it terminate ? 

Ans. At its fore part it extends downward, under the 
anterior commissure, and terminates in the infundibulum. 

Ques. 67. What is the infundibulum ? 

Ans. It is a funnel-like membranous tube, which leads 
to the pituitary gland ? 

Ques. 68. What proceeds from its posterior part ? 

Ans. The iter-a-tertio-ad-quartum-ventriculum. 

Ques. 6. Where does the iter-a-tertio-ad-quartum- 
ventriculum terminate? 

Ans. It passes under the tubercula quadrigemina, and 
terminates in the fourth ventricle. 

Pituitary Gland. 

Ques. 70. Where is the pituitary gland situated ? 
Ans, In the sella turcica. 
Ques. 71. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is transversely oval, and is sometimes on its 
lower part divided into two lobes by a small notch. 



313 

Ques. 72. What is its structure ? 
Ans. It seems to be of peculiar substance, neither cere- 
bral nor glandular. 



SECTION XXXVII. 



OF THE CEREBELLUM. 



Ques. 1. Where is the cerebellum situated? 

Ans. It is situated in the inferior cavity of the cranium, 
under the tentorium. 

Ques. 2. What is its general form ? 

Ans. It is broader laterally than before or behind, and 
flattened superiorly. 

Ques. 3. How is it divided ? 

Ans. It is divided into two lobes posteriorly, by the 
falx cerebelli. 

Ques. 4. What is its superficial appearance ? 

Ans. It has no convolutions, but on its surface are deep 
concentric sulci or grooves. 

Ques. 5. What is its structure ? 

Ans. Like the cerebrum, it consists of two substances, 
the cortical and medullary. 

Ques. 6. What is the appearance called arbor vita? I 

Ans. By cutting the cerebellum vertically from above 
downward, the arrangement of the two substances may be 
shown, the medullary appearing within the cortical, like 
27 



314 



a tree with numerous branches ; hence it is called arbor 
vitae. 

Ques. 7. What are the external eminences of the cere- 
bellum denominated ? 

Ans. The appendices vermiformes ; they are two worm- 
like eminences. 

Ques. 8. What is their situation ? 

Ans. One is situated at the anterior and superior part, 
the other at the posterior and inferior part of the cerebellum. 

Fourth Ventricle. 

Ques. 9. Where is the fourth ventricle situated ? 

Ans. It runs backward and downward along the middle 
of the cerebellum. 

Ques. 10. What opens into it anteriorly ? 

Ans. The iter-a-tertio-ad-quartum-ventriculum. 

Ques. 11. Where is the valvula vicusensii situated? 

Ans. At the beginning of the fourth ventricle, immedi- 
ately behind the iter-a-tertio-ad-quartum-ventriculum. 

Ques. 12. What is its posterior termination called ? 

Ans. It is called calamus scriptorius. 

Ques. 13. From whence do the crura cerebelli proceed ? 

Ans. From the inferior and anterior part of the cere- 
bellum. 



315 



SECTION XXXVIII. 



OF THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 

Ques. 1. What is the medulla oblongata ? 

Ans. It is a large medullary body, situated in the middle 
of the basis of the cerebrum and cerebellum. 

Ques. 2. How is it composed ? 

Ans. It is formed by the union of the crura of the 
cerebrum and cerebellum. 

Ques. 3. What are the crura of the cerebrum and cere- 
bellum ? 

Ans. They are the continuations of the medullary sub- 
stance of those parts which unite at the pons varolii. 

Ques. 4. How does the medulla oblongata terminate 
posteriorly ? 

Ans. In the medulla spinalis, which passes down the 
vertebral canal. 

Pons Varolii. 

Ques. 5. What is the situation of the pons varolii ? 

Ans. It is placed across the union of the crura cerebri 
and cerebelli, 

Ques. 6. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is a transverse semiannular protuberance. 

Ques. 7. What is its superficial appearance ? 

Ans. Its surface is streaked transversely, and divided 
into lateral parts by a longitudinal depression. 



316 



Corpora Olivaria and Corpora Pyramidalia. 

Ques. 8. What other eminences are there on the me- 
dulla oblongata ? 

Ans. From the pons varolii the medulla oblongata 
descends, becomes conical, and has four longitudinal 
eminences on its inferior surface, called the corpora 
pyramidalia, and corpora olivaria. 

Ques. 9. What is the situation of the corpora pyra- 
midalia ? 

Ans. They are placed in the middle, in a longitudinal 
direction, behind the pons varolii. 

Ques. 10. What is the situation of the corpora olivaria ? 

Ans. They are situated on the outside of the corpora 
pyramidalia. 

Corpora Mammillaria. 

Ques. 11. What are the corpara mammillaria? 

Ans. They are two small round medullary bodies, 
situated very near the infundibulum. 

Ques. 12. What relation do they bear to the anterior 
pillar of the fornix ? 

Ans. They are placed immediately under the basis of 
the anterior pillars of the fornix. 



319 



SECTION XXXIX. 

OF THE MEDULLA SPINALIS. 

Ques. 1. Whence may the medulla spinalis be said to 



arise 



Ans. It proceeds from the extremity of the medulla 
oblongata. 

Ques. 2. What' is its situation ? 

Ans. It is lodged in the canal of the vertebras. 

Ques. 3. By what membranes is it invested ? 

Ans. By a continuation of the membranes of the brain. 

Ques. 4. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is somewhat flattened anteriorly and posteriorly, 
and a groove runs along these surfaces. 

Ques. 5. What is its internal structure ? 

Ans. Like the cerebrum and cerebellum, it consists of 
a cortical and medullary substance. 

Ques. 6. Where does it terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates pointed, at the os sacrum ; towards 
its end it consists of bundles of nervous filaments, which 
has occasioned it to be called cauda aequina. 



2V 



318 



ANGIOLOGY. 



SECTION XL. 

OF THE ARTERIES IN GENERAL. 

Ques. 1. What are the arteries ? 

Ans. They are those blood vessels which convey the 
blood from the heart to all parts of the body. 

Ques. 2. How are they distinguished from the veins ? 

Ans. They differ in being- whiter, more dense, firmer 
and more elastic, when cut across presenting a gaping 
aperture, and in the living subject by their pulsatory 
motion. 

Ques. 3. How do they begin at the heart ? 

Ans. They commence by two trunks of nearly equal 
size, viz., the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, 
distributed to the lungs only ; and the aorta from the left 
ventricle, whose branches pervade every part of the body. 

Ques. 4. What angles do the branches form with these 
trunks ? 

Ans. They almost always form very obtuse angles with 
the trunks above ; but less so in proportion to their 
nearness to the heart. 

Ques. 5. How do the arteries terminate ? 

Ans. They terminate in five different ways ; first, in 
veins, by mere continuity of canal ; second, as exhalents 
on the skin, and in the various internal cavities ; third, in 
glands, secreting the various fluids ; fourth, in cellular 



319 

bodies, as in the penis and spleen ; fifth, by anastomosis, 
or branches of mutual communication between the arteries. 

Ques. 6. What is the structure of the arteries ? 

Ans. They are composed of three coats, viz. a cellular 
or external coat, an elastic or nervous coat, a muscular 
coat, and a cuticular or internal coat ; they are nourished 
by vessels called vassa vassorum. 

Of the Pulmonary Artery. 

Ques. 7. From what part of the heart does the pulmo- 
nary artery arise ? 

Ans. From the right ventricle. 

Ques. 8. What is its course ? 

Ans. It ascends towards the left, passing before the 
beginning of the aorta. 

Ques. 9. How is it divided ? 

Ans. It divides into two, viz. the right and left pulmo- 
nary arteries, one for each lung. 

Ques. 19. How are they distributed? 

Ans. They ramify throughout the lungs. 

Ques. 1 1 . How does the right pulmonary artery differ 
from the left in its course ? 

Ans. It passes behind the aorta and superior cava ; 
it is also the longest. 

Ques. 12. How do they terminate in the lungs ? 

Ans. By minute ramifications, which form upon the 
surfaces o£ the air cells, the rete mirabile Malpighii. 

Of the Aorta. 

Ques. 13. From what part of the heart does the aorta 
arise ? 

Ans. From the superior part of the left ventricle, oppo- 
site the fourth dorsal vertebra. 

Ques. 14. What is its general course ? 



320 

Ans. It ascends obliquely towards the right ; it then 
Forms a curve backwards and to the left, ascending as high 
as the second dorsal vertebra ; whence it passes down- 
wards and backwards to the left side of the body of the 
third dorsal vertebra, and continues its course along the 
bodies of the vertebrae as far as the os sacrum, lying a little 
to the left. 

Ques. 15. How is it generally divided ? 

Ans. It is usually divided into the ascending and de- 
scending aorta; and the descending is further divided 
into the superior and inferior, or thoracic and abdominal 
portions. 

Ques. 16. What parts of the body are supplied with 
blood from each of its divisions ? 

Ans. The head and upper extremities are supplied from 
the ascending aorta; the trunk and lower extremities 
from the descending. 

Ques. 17. What are the capital branches of the aorta ? 

Ans. They are the two subclavians, the carotids, the 
cceliac, the superior mesenteric, the emulgent, the inferior 
mesenteric, and the iliac arteries. 

Ques. 18. What are the smaller branches? 

Ans. They are the coronary, bronchial, oesophageal, 
intercostal, inferior diaphragmatic, spermatic, lumbar, and 
sacral arteries. 

Ques. 19. Which of the branches of the aorta arise in 
pairs, and which of them singly ? 

Ans. They all arise in pairs except the cceliac, the two 
mesenteric, some of the oesophageal, the bronchial, and 
sometimes the sacral. 

Ques. 20. What are the first arteries given off by the 
aorta ? 

Ans. The coronary. 

Ques. 21. What are the names of the arteries given 
off from the arch of the aorta ? 

Ans. There are three, viz., the arteria innomanata, of 



321 

common trunk of the right carotid and right subclavian, 
the left carotid, and left subclavian. 

Ques. 22. What is the general course of the carotid 
arteries ? 

Ans. They run directly to the head. 

Ques. 23. How are they divided? 

Ans. Into the external and internal carotid. 

Ques. 24. How is the external carotid distributed ? 

Ans. To the face and external parts of the head. 

Ques. 25. How are the internal carotids distributed ? 

Ans. To the brain. 

Ques. 26. Whither do the subclavian arteries pass ? 

Ans. They pass behind and under the clavicles to the 
upper extremity. 

Ques. 27. Where do they terminate ? 

Ans. At the upper edge of the first rib. 

Ques. 28. What name do they assume in passing from 
the thorax ? 

Ans. They take the name of axillary arteries. 

Ques. 29. What arteries are given off from the tho- 
racic portion of the descending aorta ? 

Ans. The bronchial, oesophageal, and intercostal arteries. 

Ques. 30. What arteries does the abdominal portion 
of the descending aorta give off ? 

Ans. The phrenic, coeliac, superior mesenteric, emul- 
gent, spermatic, inferior mesenteric, lumbar, sacral, and 
iliac arteries. 

Ques. 31. Whither do the phrenic arteries pass ? 

Ans. They go to the diaphragm. 

Ques. 32. Where do the coeliac arteries go ? 

Ans. To the stomach, spleen, and liver. 

Ques. 33. What parts does the superior mesenteric 
supply ? 

Ans. The mesentery, small intestines, &c. 

Ques. 34. Where do the emulgent arteries go? 

Ans. To the kidneys. 



322 

Ques. 35. Where do the remainder of the branches go ? 

Ans. The spermatic to the testes, the inferior mesenteric 
to the great intestines, the lumbar to the loins, and the 
sacral to the sacrum. 

Ques. 36. How does the aorta terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates in the two iliac arteries, which pass 
to the pelvis and lower extremities. 

Ques. 37. How are the iliac arteries divided ? 

Ans. They divide into the external and internal iliac 
arteries ; the internal iliacs go to the pelvis, the external 
pass to the thighs and lower extremities. 

Ques. 38. Where do they terminate ? 

Ans. Under Poupart's ligament. 

Ques. 39. What name does the external iliac assume 
on passing from the abdomen ? 

Ans. The continuations of the external iliacs on the 
lower extremities, are called the femoral arteries. 



SECTION XLL 



OF THE ARTERIES OF THE HEART. 

Ques. 1 . What is the number of the coronary arteries ? 

Ans. There are two : a right and left coronary artery. 

Ques. 2. Where do they arise ? 

Ans. Immediately above the semilunar valves. 

Ques. 3. What is the course of the right coronary 
artery ? 

Ans. It passes in the groove between the right auricle 
and ventricle, round the right edge of the heart to its in- 



323 

ferior flat surface, along the middle of which it runs to 
the apex. 

Ques. 4. What is the course of the left coronary artery ? 

Ans. It is smaller than the right ; it passes between 
the pulmonary artery and left auricle, and then divides into 
two or three branches ; one runs along the middle of the 
upper surface ; another passes round the basis of the flat 
side ; and a third often goes to the septum ventriculorum. 



SECTION XLIL 



OF THE ARTERIES OF THE HEAD. 

Ques. 1. What arteries supply the head ? 

Ans. The two carotids. 

Ques. 2. Where do they arise ? 

Ans. The right arises from the arteria innominata, and 
the left is the next capital branch given off by the aorta. 

Ques. 3. What is their course ? 

Ans. They ascend on each side of the trachea, between 
it and the internal jugular vein, as high as the larynx, 
without giving off any branches ; and in this course are 
called the primitive carotids. 

Ques. 4. How are they divided ? 

Ans. Opposite to the os hyoides they divide into the 
external and internal carotids. 

Ques. 5. What is the relative situation of the external 
and internal carotid arteries ? 

Ans. The external is situated before and to the inside 
of the internal, at their origin. 



324 



External Carotid Artery. 

Ques. 6. What is the general course of the external 
carotid artery ? 

Ans. It ascends behind the angle of the lower jaw, 
passes under the parotid gland, and terminates opposite 
the condyle of the lower jaw. 

Ques. 7. How many branches does it give off, and 
what are their names ? 

Ans. It gives off nine branches, viz. ; anteriorly, the 
superior thyroideal, the lingual, the external maxillary or 
labial, and the facial ; posteriorly, the occipital, the pos- 
terior auris ; interiorly, the ascending pharnygeal ; and 
lastly, it divides into the temporal, and the internal 
maxillary. 

Ques. 8. Where does the superior thyroideal artery 
arise ? 

Ans. It arises from the inner side of the external carotid 
near its origin. 

Ques. 9. What is its course and distribution 1 

Ans. Immediately after its origin, it bends downwards 
and gives branches to the jugular glands, the fat, and the 
skin ; then runs transversely, and is distributed to the 
thyroid gland and larynx, as well as slightly to the 
pharynx. 

Ques. 10. What is the next branch given off? 

Ans. The lingual. 

Ques. 11. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It passes over the cornu of the os hyoides to the 
muscles of that bone and of the tongue, and to the sub- 
lingual gland ; then loses itself in the tongue, where it 
has been called the raninal artery. 

Ques. 12. What is the next branch given off ? 

Ans. The external maxillary or labial. 

Ques. 13. What is its course and distribution X 



325 

Ans. It arises anteriorly, and passes over and just before 
the masseter, and middle of the lower jaw ; it then runs 
under the depressor anguli oris, supplying it, the bucci- 
nator, and the quadratus ; it sends off first, the submental, 
below the chin, — next, a contorted branch, which, dividing 
at the commissure of the lips, runs along their edges and 
forms, with its fellow, the coronaria labiorum ; it then 
ascends towards the nose, and is distributed about it ; it 
afterwards reaches the inner angle of the palpebrae, and 
disperses several branches. 

Ques. 14. What is the next branch given off? 

Ans. The ascending pharyngeal is the next in order, 
arising from the" inner side of the external carotid ; it is of 
small size, and ascends upon the rectus anticus to the 
pharynx; some of its branches enter the cranium. 

Ques. 15- What branch is next given off? 

Ans. The occipital, arising posteriorly. 

Ques. 16. What is its course? 

Ans. It passes obliquely before the internal jugular 
vein, and giving twigs to the stylo-hyoideus, stylo-glossus, 
and digastric, it runs between the styloid and mastoid 
processes, supplying the muscles and integuments of the 
os occipitis ; it communicates posteriorly with the verte- 
bral and cervical, and superiorly with the temporal artery. 

Ques. 17. What is the next branch given off? 

Ans. The posterior auris, arising posteriorly ; it is 
distributed to the external ear. 

Ques. 18. What is the next branch given off? 

Ans. The fascial ; it arises anteriorly. 

Ques. 19. What is its course? 

Ans. It is small ; passes across before the masseter 
muscle, and is distributed to it, and to the fat of the 
cheek. 

Ques. 20. What artery is next given off ? 

Ans. The temporal. 

28 



326 



Ques. 21. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It emerges from the parotid gland, ascends over 
the zygoma, and divides into an anterior, middle, and 
posterior branch. The anterior or frontal branch supplies 
the forehead ; the middle or parietal branch partly to the 
forehead, and partly to the occiput ; and the posterior or 
occipital branch, to the occiput. 

Ques. 22. What is the next and last branch I 

Ans. The internal maxillary ; it commences from the 
termination of the external carotid. 

Ques. 23. W 7 hat is its course ? 

Ans. Just below the cervix of the lower jaw it bends 
inward, forward, and downward ; and then ascends for- 
ward to the sphceno-maxillary fissure. 

Ques. 24. What arteries does the internal maxillary 
give off ? 

Ans. It gives off six branches, viz., the arteria meningea 
media, the inferior maxillary, the alveolar, the infra 
orbitar, the palato-maxillary, and the sphceno-palatine ; 
and also various other branches to the adjacent parts, 
from which they have received names. 

Ques. 25. Describe the course and distribution of the 
branches enumerated. 

Ans. The arteria meningea media passes through the 
foramen spinosum of the os sphoenoides to the dura 
mater ; the inferior maxillary enters the canal of the 
lower jaw, and goes to the teeth and chin; the alveolar 
goes to the back teeth of the upper jaw ; the infra orbitar 
passes along the infra orbitary canal to the cheek ; the 
palato-maxillary descends in the canal of the same name 
to the palate ; and the sphceno-palatine goes to the cavity 
of the nose. 



327 



Internal Carotid Artery. 

Ques. 26. What is the general course of the internal 
carotid artery ? 

Ans. At first it forms a curve backward, and is situated 
more posteriorly than the external ; it ascends to the pe- 
trous portion of the temporal bone, passes through its 
canal into the cavernous sinus ; it there forms another con- 
siderable curve by the side of the sella turcica, and by the 
side of the internal clynoid process it pierces the dura 
mater. 

Ques. 27. Enumerate the branches of the internal 
carotid. 

Ans. It sends one branch forward just as it pierces the 
dura mater, which accompanies the optic nerve through 
the foramen opticum, called the ophthalmic,^ which is dis- 
tributed to the contents of the orbit ; it then divides into 
three branches ; namely, the communicans, which runs 
backwards to join the vertebral; the anterior cerebri ; and 
the media cerebri. 

Ques. 28. What is the course of the anterior cerebri ? 

Ans. It runs forward and unites with its fellow from 
the other side, and then divides into two or three branches, 
which go to the anterior lobes of the brain, the corpus 
callosum, and to the middle lobes of the brain. 

Ques. 29. What is the course of the media cerebri ? 

Ans. It is larger than the former ; divides into several 
rami, which supply the superficial parts of the brain above 
and below. 



328 



SECTION XLIIL 



ARTERIES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Subclavian Arteries. 

Ques. 1. What is the number of the subclavian ar- 
teries ? 

Ans. There are two, one going to each arm. 

Ques. 2. Where do they arise ? 

Ans. The right subclavian arises from the arteria inno- 
minata ; the left is the third branch, which proceeds 
directly from the arch of the aorta. 

Ques. 3. What is their course ? 

Ans. They pass transversely under the clavicles, and 
over the first rib. 

Ques. 4. Where do they change their name ? 

Ans. Above the middle of the first two ribs, between 
the anterior insertions of the scaleni ; they then take the 
name of axillary arteries. 

Ques. 5. Which subclavian artery is the shortest ? 

Ans. The left; it also takes a more oblique course than 
the right. 

Ques. 6. Enumerate the branches of the subclavian 
artery. 

Ans. They run some way without giving off any 
branches ; then each gives off six, viz., the vertebral, the 
internal mammary, the cervical, the intercostal, the inferior 
thyroideal, and the supra-scapular arteries. 

Ques. 7. Where does the vertebral artery arise I 



329 

Ans. It arises from the posterior and upper side of the 
subclavian. 

Ques. 8. What is its course aud distribution ? 

Ans. It aseends and enters the canal formed in the 
transverse cervical processes, sending off twigs in its 
ascent to the medulla spinalis and its membranes, and 
giving arteries to the vertebral muscles ; its course is very 
tortuous, especially before it enters the cranium, at the 
foramen magnum occipitale ; before entering the cranium, 
it communicates with the cervical and occipital arteries, 
and immediately after it enters it gives branches to the 
medulla oblongata, corpora olivaria, &c. ; it then advances 
on the basilary process of the os occipitis ; here joining 
its fellow, it forms the basilary artery, which commu- 
nicates with the branches of the internal carotid, and is 
distributed to the posterior lobes of the brain. 

Ques. 9. What is the circulus arteriosus, or the circle 
of Willis ? 

Ans. The branches of communication between the ver- 
tebral arteries and the internal carotids surround the sella 
turcica, and form the circulus arteriosus. 

Ques. 10. Where does the internal mammary artery 
arise ? 

Ans. It arises from the anterior and lower side of the 
subclavius. 

Ques. 11. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It descends behind the cartilages of the true ribs, 
an inch from the sternum, giving branches to the thymus, 
mediastinum, pericardium, pleura, intercostal muscles, 
&c. ; and passes from the thorax by the side of the ensi- 
form appendix of the sternum, to the rectus abdominis, 
where it communicates with the epigastric artery. 

Ques. 12. Where does the cervical artery arise ? 

Ans. From the upper side of the subclavian. 

Ques. 13. What is its course and distribution? 
28* 



330 

Ans. This artery sometimes arises singly and imme- 
diately divides, or its two branches have distinct origins ; 
the cervicalis anterior runs behind the carotid of the 
same side, and is distributed to the anterior muscles of 
the neck, and to those of the larynx, pharynx, &c. ; the 
posterior cervical passes under the transverse process 
of the last vertebra of the neck, and runs to the pos- 
terior cervical muscles. 

Ques. 14. Where does the superior intercostal arise ? 

Ans. From the lower side of the subclavian. 

Ques. 15. What is its course ? 

Ans. It descends on the inside of the two or three 
uppermost ribs, near their heads, and sends off under 
each of these ribs a branch which runs along its lower 
edge, and supplies the intercostal muscles, contiguous 
parts of the pleura, &c. 

Ques. 16. Where does the inferior thyroideal arise? 

Ans. From the upper part of the subclavian, near the 
internal mammary. 

Ques. 17. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans, It ascends, passes behind the primitive carotid, and 
is chiefly distributed to the thyroid gland. 

Ques. 18. Where does the supra-scapular artery 
arise ? 

Ans. It arises near the inferior thyroideal, and some- 
times from it ; it is often a considerable branch. 

Ques. 19. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It passes to the notch behind the coracoid process 
of the scapula, and is distributed to the muscles at the 
back and upper part of that bone. 

Axillary Arteries. 

Ques. 20. Where do the axillary arteries commence ? 
Ans. They begin at the first rib, between the insertions 
of the scaleni, being the continuations of the subclavian. 



331 

Ques. 21. Where do they terminate ? 
Ans. Opposite the lower part of the tendon of the la- 
tissimus dorsi, being about four inches long ; its continu- 
ation is called the brachial artery. 

Ques. 22. Enumerate the branches of the axillary 
arteries. 

Ans. Each axillary artery sends off five or six branches, 
namely, the external mammary or thoracic arteries, the 
infra scapular, the anterior circumflex, and the posterior 
circumflex. 

Ques. 23. How many external mammary arteries are 
there ? 

Ans. There are usually three or four, but two of which 
are chiefly noticed. 

Ques. 24. Which is the first branch given off by the 
axillary artery ? 

Ans. The superior mammary. 
Ques. 25. What is its course ? 

Ans. It descends between the pectoralis major and 
minor, giving branches to them and to the serratus anti- 
cus, latissimus dorsi, &c. 

Ques. 26. What is the second branch given off? 
Ans. The inferior mammary. 
Ques. 27. What is its course ? 

Ans. It runs along the inferior edge of the pectoralis 
major, and is distributed to the adjacent muscles, breast, 
and skin. 

Ques. 28. What is the third branch given oft'? 
Ans. The infra scapular. 

Ques. 29. What is its course and distribution ? 
Ans. It is a very consideiable artery, and takes the 
course of the inferior costa of the scapula, sending 
branches to the subscapulars, teres major and minor, and 
large branches to the inferior part of the scapula. 

Ques. 30. What is the course and distribution of the 
anterior circumflex arterv ? 



332 

Ans. It is small ; it runs forwards under the coraco- 
brachialis, then bends outward, and passes under the 
deltoid. 

Ques. 31. Where does the posterior circumflex artery 
arise ? 

Ans. It is a considerable vessel, arising from the lower 
and posterior part of the trunk. 

Ques. 32. What is its course and distribution? 

Ans. It runs backward between the head of the os hu- 
meri and teres major, surrounding the articulation till it 
reaches the posterior part of the deltoid, under which it 
passes and is distributed. 

Ques. 33. Where does the brachial artery commence ? 

Ans. It is the continuation of the axillary artery, be- 
ginning immediately below the tendon of the latissimus 
dorsi. 

Ques. 34. What is its course ? 

Ans. It descends on the inside of the arm, over the 
coraco-brachialis, and short head of the triceps, and along 
the inner edge of the biceps to the middle of the arm. 

Ques. 35. What branches are given off by the bra- 
chial artery above the bend of the arm ? 

Ans. Besides many small branches to the neighbouring 
parts, it sends off, first, the profunda humeri superior, 
from the inner side of its upper part — it is a long branch, 
which passes behind the bone, and communicates with 
ihe radial artery ; secondly, the profunda inferior, about 
the middle of the arm, which descends toward the inner 
condyle ; thirdly, the anastomodicus magnus, given off a 
little above the inner condyle, communicating with the 
arteries of the fore arm. 

Ques. 36. What is the situation of the brachial artery 
at the bend of the arm ? 

Ans. At the bend of the arm it runs under the apo- 
neurosis of the biceps, and under the median vein. 

Ques. 37. How does the brachial artery terminate ? 



333 

Ans. A little below the fold of the arm it divides into 
two principal branches ; an inner or posterior, named 
ulnar or cubital, and an outer or anterior, named radial. 

Ques. 38. What is the course of the ulnar artery ? 

Ans. It passes deep under the flexors of the hand and 
fingers to the inner part of the fore arm, along the outer 
side of the flexor carpi ulnaris and os pisiforme to the 
palm of the hand ; passing over the anterior annular liga- 
ment, and under the palmar fascia, and here forming the 
superficial palmar arch. 

Ques. 39. What are the chief branches given off by 
the ulnar before it reaches the wrist ? 

Ans. First, the ulnar recurrent ; second, the anterior 
interosseous artery ; and third, the posterior interosseous 
artery. 

Ques. 40. What is the course of the ulnar recurrent ? 

Ans. It runs to the inner condyle, then turns up to 
communicate with the branches from the anastomodicus. 

Ques. 41. Where is the anterior interosseous given 
off? 

Ans. It is given off deeply between the heads of the 
ulna and radius. 

Ques. 42. What is its course ? 

Ans. It descends close to the interosseous ligament, 
passes under the pronator quadratus, behind which it per- 
forates the ligament, and goes to the back of the wrist. 

Ques. 43. Where is the posterior interosseous given 
off? 

Ans. It has usually a common origin with the anterior. 

Ques. 44. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. About a couple of inches below the articulation it 
pierces the interosseous ligament, and having given off a 
recurrent toward the external condyle of the os humeri, 
it descends behind the ligament, and is distributed to the 
muscles on the back of the arm, and communicates with 
the anterior interosseous and other arteries. 



334 

Ques. 45. What is the course of the superficial palmar 
arch? 

Ans. It crosses the upper part of the palm of the hand 
and passes towards the thumb, lying between the palmar 
fascia and flexor tendons of the fingers. 

Ques. 46. What branches are given off by it? 

Ans. It sends off five branches, viz., the ulnaris pro- 
funda, and four digital arteries. 

Ques. 47. What is the course and distribution of the 
ulnaris profunda ? 

Ans. It passes deep under the flexor tendons, to join 
the arcus profundus of the radial artery ; it also sends a 
branch to the inner side of the little finger. 

Ques. 48. What is the course and distribution of the 
digital arteries ? 

Ans. They are given off in succession ; each passes 
between the heads of two neighbouring metacarpal bones ; 
it then splits into two, one branch passing along the inside 
of one finger, the other branch along the outside of the 
adjacent finger. The first supplies the outside of the 
little finger, and inside of the ring finger ; the second 
goes to the outside of the ring finger, and inside of the 
middle finger ; the third to the outside of the middle 
finger, and inside of the fore fineger ; the fourth to the 
outside of the index, and inside of the thumb. 

Ques. 49. How does the superficial palmar arch ter- 
minate ? 

Ans. By a branch of communication with the radial 
artery. 

Ques. 50. What is the general course of the radial 
artery ? 

Ans. It takes the direction of the radius ; it passes over 
the pronator teres, and at the wrist it lays superficially 
between the tendons of the flexor carpi radialis, and supi- 
nator longus. 

Ques. 51. What branch does it give off before it 
reaches the wrist. 



335 

Ans. In its course to the wrist it gives off the ra- 
dial recurrent over the outer condyle, to communicate 
with the anastomosing branches of the brachialis ; and in 
its course downward it supplies, by small branches, the 
various muscles through which it passes. 

Ques. 52. What branches does the radial artery give 
off at the wrist ? 

Ans. It gives off the superficial volae to the ball of the 
thumb and palm of the hand, which often communicates 
with the superficial palmar arch. 

Ques. 53. How does the radial artery form the deep 
palmar arch ? 

Ans. It runs backwards under the tendons of the ab- 
ductor and extensors of the thumb ; between the basis of 
the first bone of the thumb and of the metacarpal bone of 
the fore finger, it passes into the palms of the hand, where 
it forms the arcus profundus. 

Ques. 54. What is the course of the arcus profundus ? 

Ans. It runs under the tendons of the flexor muscles 
close to the bones, and joins the communicating branch 
of the superficial arch. 

Ques. 55. What branches does it give off? 

Ans. It gives a branch to the thumb, and one passes 
from it between each metacarpal bone. 



336 



SECTION XLIV. 



OF THE THORACIC ARTERIES. 



Ques. 1. Enumerate the branches given off by the 
thoracic portion of the aorta. 

Ans. It gives off the bronchial, the oesophageal, and 
the inferior intercostal arteries. 

Ques. 2. Where do the bronchial arteries arise ? 

Ans. They are given off very irregularly, but they 
generally arise from the fore part of the aorta ; there is at 
least one for each lung, and sometimes more. 

Ques. 3. What is their course and distribution ? 

Ans. They pass directly to each lung, to the substance 
of which they are distributed. 

Ques. 4. Where do the oesophageal arteries arise ? 

Ans. They are from three to six in number, and arise 
from the fore part of the aorta, and are distributed to the 
oesophagus. 

Ques. 5. Where do the intercostal arteries arise ? 

Ans. They arise in pairs along the back part of the 
descending aorta, all the way to the diaphragm. 

Ques. 6. What is their course ? 

Ans. They run transversely over the bodies of the 
vertebras, and supply the intercostal muscles, contiguous 
pleura, &c. 



337 



SECTION XLV. 



OF THE ABDOMINAL ARTERIES. 

Ques. 1. Enumerate the arteries given off by the abdo- 
minal aorta. 

Ans. They are the phrenic, the coeliac, the superior 
mesenteric, the emulgent, the capsular, the spermatic, the 
inferior mesenteric, the lumbar, and the sacral arteries. 

Ques. 2. How many phrenic arteries are there, and 
where do they arise ? 

Ans. They are two in number, and arise from the 
aorta, between the crura of the lesser muscle of the 
diaphragm. 

Ques. 3. What is their course and distribution ? 

Ans. They run along the concave side of the diaphragm, 
and are distributed to its fibres, and to the neighbouring 
parts. 

Ques. 4. Where does the coeliac artery arise ? 

Ans. From the fore part of the aorta, immediately after 
its passage through the crura of the diaphragm, nearly 
opposite to the junction of the last dorsal with the first 
lumbar vertebra. 

Ques. 5. What are the chief branches of the coeliac? 

Ans. It divides into three great branches, viz., the co- 
ronary of the stomach, the hepatic, and the splenic. 

Ques. 6. What is the course and distribution of the 
coronary of the stomach 1 

Ans. It is the least of the three branches ; it passes to 
the left, and having reached the superior orifice oi the 
29 



338 



stomach, it returns along the lesser curvature, giving 
branches which surround the stomach ; it communicates 
with the pyloric artery. 

Ques. 7. What is the course and distribution of the 
hepatic artery ? 

Ans. It runs to the upper and inner part of the pylorus, 
there giving off, first, the pyloric artery, which is small, 
and a larger one ; the gastro-epiploica dextra, which runs 
along the right side of the great curvature of the stomach, 
having first at the pylorus given off the duodenal artery 
to the duodenum ; it then proceeds behind the gall ducts 
towards the gall bladder, to which it gives off the cystic 
arteries ; then divides into two branches, one of which 
goes to the right and the other to the left lobe of the liver. 

Ques. 8. What is the course and distribution of the 
splenic artery ? 

4ns. It runs towards the left, hidden behind the pan- 
creas ; towards the spleen, adhering to the pancreas, to 
which it gives off several branches ; the pancreatica, near 
the extremity of the pancreas, it gives off the gastro-epi- 
ploica sinistra, to the left portion of the great curvature of 
the stomach ; it then gives the vasa brevia to the great 
extremity of the stomach ; and lastly, it divides into four 
or five considerable branches, which terminate in the 
spleen. 

Ques. 9. Where does the superior mesenteric artery 
arise ? 

Ans. It arises from the fore part of the aorta, a little 
below the cceliac. 

Ques. 10. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It descends obliquely to the left, at first covered 
by the pancreas ; it then passes over the duodenum, and 
enters between the two laminae of the mesentery. In the 
rest of its course it takes a sweep obliquely from the left 
to the right, and terminates at the extremity of the ilium ; 
by this means it forms a long arch, from which sixteen or 



339 

eighteen branches proceed, chiefly to the small intestines ; 
the first and last branches are shorter than the middle 
ones. These branches join each other by numerous 
arches ; the first considerable branch is the colica dextra, 
which, passing along the superior part of the colon, com- 
municates with the inferior mesenteric ; the second 
principal branch supplies the last portion of the ilium and 
the first of the colon, and is called the ilio-colica. 

Ques. 11. Where does the inferior mesenteric artery 
arise .? 

Ans. It arises from the fore part of the aorta, about a 
finger's breadth below the spermatic arteries. 

Ques. 12. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It divides into three or four branches ; it is dis- 
tributed to the large intestines ; the first of which, com- 
municating with the colica dextra upon the colon, is named 
colica senestra ; the lower branch sends off the anterior 
haemorrhoidalis interna to the posterior portion of the 
rectum. 

Ques. 13. How many emulgent arteries are there, and 
where do they arise ? 

Ans. There are two, one for each kidney ; they arise 
from the sides of the aorta, immediately under the superior 
mesenteric, 

Ques. 14. What is their course and distribution? 

Ans. The right lies more backward and is longer than 
the left, passing behind the vena cava ; they both lie 
behind the emulgent veins, and enter the substance of the 
kidneys behind the vein. 

Ques. 15. Where do the capsular arteries arise? 

Ans. The right comes most commonly from the right 
emulgent, and the left from the aorta above the emulgent. 

Ques. 16. What is their course and distribution ? 

Ans. They pass directly, and are distributed to the 
renal capsules. 

Ques. 17. Where do the spermatic arteries arise ? 



340 

Ans. They arise near each other from the fore part of 
the aorta, between the emulgents and inferior mesenteric. 

Ques. 18. What is their course ? 

Ans. They descend obliquely outward, giving off mi- 
nute branches ; in men they pass through the abdominal 
ring to be distributed to the testes ; while in women they 
remain in the abdomen, and are distributed to the ovaria 
and uterus. 

Ques. 19. Where do the lumbar arteries arise ? 

Ans. They arise from the posterior part of the abdo- 
minal aorta, in five or six pairs. 

Ques. 20. How are they distributed ? 

Ans. They are distributed on each side of the loins. 

Ques. 21. Where does the sacral artery arise? 

Ans. It generally arises from the bifurcation of the 
aorta , it is distributed to the os sacrum, contiguous peri- 
toneum, &c. &c. 



SECTION XLVL 



OF THE PELVIC ARTERIES. 



Ques. 1. What arteries proceed from the termination 
of the aorta ? 

Ans. The two iliac arteries, and the sacral ; they pro- 
ceed from the aorta, opposite the junction of the fourth 
and fifth lumbar vertebrae. 

Ques. 2. What is the course of the right primitive 
iliac ? 



341 

Ans. It passes first before the origin of the left iliac 
vein, and then descends before the right iliac vein. 

Ques. 3. What is the course of the left primitive 
iliac ? 

Ans. It descends before and to the outer side of the 
left vein. 

Ques. 4. How are they divided ? 

Ans. Opposite the union of the ilium and sacrum, each 
divides into an internal and external iliac artery. 

Ques. 5. What is the course of the trunk of the in- 
ternal iliac ? 

Ans. It passes into the cavity of the pelvis, a little be- 
fore the sacro-iliac junction ; and being directed a little 
forwards it forms a curve, whose convexity is turued 
downwards and backwards. 

Ques. 6. What are the chief branches given off by the 
internal iliac ? 

Ans. They are the lesser iliac, the glutaeal, the sciatic, 
the pudic, the obturator, and the umbilical arteries. 

Ques. 7. Where does the lesser iliac arteries arise ? 

Ans. It is the first branch given off by the internal iliac, 
but sometimes it proceeds from the glutaeal. 

Ques. 8. What is its course ? 

Ans. It passes behind the psoas, and is distributed to 
the iliacus internus, to the os ilium, to the quadratus 
lumborum, &c. 

Ques. 9. Where does the glutaeal artery arise ? 

Ans. It is one of the greatest branches given off, and is 
the second branch given off by the internal iliac. 

Ques. 10. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It passes from the pelvis, along with the sciatic 
nerve, through the greater sacro-ischiatic notch ; it is dis- 
tributed in numerous branches to the glutaeus maximus 
and medius. 

Ques. 11. What is the third branch given off? 
29* 



342 

Ans. The sciatic ; it is next in size to the glutaeal. 
Ques. 12. What is its course ? 

Ans. After detaching several branches to the rectum, 
<fcc, it passes obliquely over the sciatic nerve, accom- 
panying it through the great sacro-ischiatic notch, and 
descending with it along the posterior part of the thigh, 
and being distributed to the parts adjacent. 

Ques. 13. Where does the pudic artery arise ? 
Ans. It generally arises from one common trunk with 
the sciatic. 

Ques. 14. What is its course and distribution ? 
Ans. After sending branches to the bladder, rectum, &c. 
it quits the pelvis through the great sacro-ischiatic notch ; 
then passes behind the spine of the ischium, and again 
enters the pelvis through the lesser sacro-ischiatic notch ; 
it next runs on the inside of the tuberosity of the ischium, 
and separates into two, an inferior or perineal artery, and 
a superior, which is the artery of the penis. The latter 
runs along the branch of the ischium and pubis to the 
symphisis ; in this course it sends an artery to the bulb 
of the urethra, and having reached the symphisis pubis, it 
divides into two branches, one the dorsal, the other the 
cavernous artery of the penis ; the dorsal runs along the 
superior groove of the penis, the cavernous enters and is 
distributed within the corpora cavernosa. 

Ques. 15. Where does the obturator artery arise? 
Ans. Its origin varies ; sometimes it arises from the 
internal iliac, and sometimes from the lesser iliac ; now 
and then from the epigastric, and but rarely from the ex- 
ternal iliac. 

Ques. 16. What is its course and distribution? 
Ans. It passes from the pelvis at the upper part of the 
ligament of the foramen ovale, and is distributed to the 
pectineus and triceps. 

Ques. 17. What is there peculiar to the umbilical 
artery ? 



343 

Ans. It is important to the foetus, but is nearly obli- 
terated in the adult. 

Ques. 18. What is its course ? 

Ans. It ascends on the side of the bladder, giving 
branches to it, the peritoneum, and contiguous parts ; it 
then assumes the form of a ligament, and passes upwards 
to the umbilicus. 

Ques. 19. What is the course of the external iliac ? 

Ans. It descends on the iliac muscle as far as Poupart's 
ligament. 

Ques. 20. What branches does it give off? 

Ans. It gives off two ; namely, the epigastric, and cir- 
cumflexa ilii. 

Ques. 21. Where does the epigastric artery arise ? 

Ans. It arises internally from the external iliac, as it 
passes under Poupart's ligament. 

Ques. 22. What is its course ? 

Ans. It ascends obliquely behind the tendon of the 
transversalis abdominis, toward the posterior part of the 
rectus, behind which it runs, giving branches to the con- 
tiguous parts ; and terminates by anastomosing with the 
internal mammary artery. It is important that in cases of 
hernia, the surgeon should be aware that it sometimes 
gives off the obturator artery. 

Ques. 23. Where does the circumflexa ilii arise ? 

Ans. It arises from the outer side of the external iliac, 
under Poupart's ligament. 

Ques. 24. What is its course ? 

Ans. It passes to the inner labium of the crista of the 
ilium, where it is distributed to the abdominal muscles. 



344 



SECTION XLVII. 



OF THE ARTERIES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. Where does the femoral artery commence? 

Ans. The femoral artery is the name given to the ex- 
ternal iliac immediately after it has passed under Pou- 
part's ligament. 

Ques. 2. What is its course ? 

Ans. It descends over the brim of the pelvis and head 
of the os femoris ; it is placed on the inside of the femoral 
vein ; in this part of its course it is covered only by the 
skin, fat, and glands ; it then descends between the sar- 
torius, vastus internus, and triceps, being covered for a 
great part of the way by the former. Below the middle 
of the thigh it passes through the tendinous part of the 
triceps, then over the inner ridge of the linea aspera, and 
below the tendon of the triceps into the ham, where it 
forms the popliteal artery. 

Ques. 3. What branches does it send off in the groin ? 

Ans. It sends branches to the inguinal glands, one or 
two to the parts of generation, called the external pudic ; 
others to the muscles near the groin, and the profunda. 

Ques. 4. Where is the profunda given off? 

Ans. It arises about four inches below Poupart's liga- 
ment, from the posterior part of the femoral artery ; it is 
nearly equal in size to the femoral artery. 

Ques. 5. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It passes deep, betwixt the adductors and vastus 
internus ; it gives off high up, first, the circumflexa in- 
terna, distributed to the pectinalis, triceps, and obturator, 
and anastamoses with the obturator artery ; second, the 



345 

circumflexa externa, near the former, which is distributed 
to the external and upper part of the thigh, anastomosing 
with the glutaeal ; third, the perforantes, usually three in 
number, sent off lower down and posteriorly ; they 
perforate the triceps, and are distributed to the back part 
of the thigh. 

Ques. 6. What name does the femoral artery assume 
in the hams ? 

Ans. It assumes the name of popliteal. 

Ques. 7. What branches does it give off? 

Ans. It gives off two superiorly, called the superior 
articular, which pass to the upper part of the knee joint ; 
two inferiorly, to the lower part of the knee joint, called 
the inferior articular ; and one or two between these, 
called the middle articular. 

Ques. 8. How does it terminate ? 

Ans. It divides into two principal branches ; namely, 
the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. 

Ques. 9. What is the course of the anterior tibial ? 

Ans. It passes between the heads of the tibia and fibula, 
through the interosseous ligament ; then descends on its 
fore part, between the tibialis anticus and extensor digi- 
torum ; passes under the common annular ligament ; and 
advances on the convex side of the foot as far as the in- 
terstice between the first and second metatarsal bones. 

Ques. 10. How is the anterior tibial artery distributed ? 

Ans. As it passes between the tibia and fibula it gives 
off several small branches ; it gives off numerous others as 
it descends upon the leg, and over the upper part of the 
foot ; at its termination it sends off a large branch between 
the heads of the first and second metatarsal bones, to join 
the posterior tibial ; it also sends several branches over the 
metatarsal bones, and a considerable one to each side of 
the great toe. 

Ques. 11. What is the course of the posterior tibial 
artery ? 



346 

Ans. It descends between the soleus, tibialis posticus, 
flexor digitorum communis, and flexor longus pollicis ; 
it then runs behind the inner ankle, and passes to the sole 
of the foot through the concavity of the os calcis, where 
it divides into the external and internal plantar arteries. 

Ques. 12. How is it distributed? 

Ans. It gives branches to the muscles as it descends, 
and the nutrient artery to the bone ; it also communicates 
behind the inner ankle with the anterior tibial. 

Ques. 13. What is the course and distribution of the 
external plantar artery ? 

Ans. It passes on the concavity of the os calcis ob- 
liquely under the sole of the foot, to the base of the fifth 
metatarsal bone ; thence it runs across, forming the 
plantar arch, toward the great toe, where it communicates 
with the large branch of the anterior tibial; from the 
convex side of this plantar arch, branches proceed to the 
outside of the second toe and to both sides of the three 
last ones, in the same way as the digital arteries of the 
hand are given off*. 

Ques. 14. What is the course and distribution of the 
internal plantar artery. 

Ans. Having passed beyond the middle of the sole of 
the foot it divides, sending one branch to the great toe, 
where it communicates with the branch of the anterior 
tibial, and another to the first phalanges of the other toes, 
communicating with the branches of the arch. 

Ques. 15. What is the course and distribution of the 
fibular artery ? 

Ans. It descends on the back of the fibula, between the 
soleus and flexor longus pollicis, giving rami in its course, 
and about the lower third of the fibula it sends a branch 
between it and the tibia to the integuments of the tarsus : 
between the astragalus and tendo-Achilles, it forms an 
arch with the posterior tibial ; thence running outward 
and above the external ankle it communicates with the 
anterior tibial, and sends off several rami. 



347 



SECTION XLVIII. 



OF THE VEINS IN GENERAL. 



Ques. 1. What are the veins ? 

Ans. They are those blood vessels by which the blood 
is returned to the heart from the different parts of the 
body. 

Ques. 2. How are they distinguished from the arteries ? 

Ans. They are distinguished by being more trans- 
parent, less elastic, collapsing when cut across, and having 
no pulsation. 

Ques. 3. Where do the veins begin ? 

Ans. They arise from the extreme branches of the ar- 
teries, except in the spleen, corpora cavernosa, penis, and 
clitoris ; where they begin by open mouths in the cells of 
those parts. 

Ques. 4. How are they distributed ? 

Ans. Their mode of distribution is similar to that of 
the arteries ; they are, however, more numerous, and 
larger. 

Ques. 5. What is their structure ? 

Ans. Their structure is similar to that of the arteries ; 
but their coats, especially the elastic coat, are thinner. 

Ques. 6. What are the valves of the veins ? 

Ans. Their internal or cuticular coat forms occasionally 
semilunar folds, called valves. 

Ques. 7. How are these valves disposed ? 

Ans. They are arranged in pairs, having their concave 
sides turned towards the heart, and their straight edges 
meet when distended. 

Ques. 8. What veins are without valves ? 



348 



Ans. They are not found in the veins of the head or 
viscera. 

Ques. 9. What is the use of these valves ? 

Ans. They allow the blood to flow towards the heart, 
but prevent its taking an opposite course ? 

Ques. 10. How many principal venous trunks are 
there ? 

Ans. There are six trunks which return the blood to 
the auricles of the heart, which the pulmonary artery and 
aorta had conveyed from the ventricles. 

Ques. 11. Enumerate the venous trunks. 

Ans. The four pulmonary veins return the blood from 
the lungs to the left auricle ; the superior and the inferior 
cava bring back to the right auricle that which has been 
distributed by the aorta. 

Ques. 12. What are the veins peculiar to the heart ? 

Ans. The heart has one vein only, called the coronary, 
which opens into the posterior and inferior part of the 
right auricle, very near the septum auriculorum. 



349 



SECTION XLIX. 



THE SUPERIOR CAVA. 



Ques. 1. Where does the superior cava arise ? 

Ans. It arises from the superior part of the right auricle, 
where it is surrounded hy the pericardium. 

Ques. 2. How does it terminate ? 

Ans. It ascends a little to the right and backwards, and 
terminates behind the cartilage of the first rib by dividing 
into two branches, called the subclavian veins. 

Ques. 3. What veins does the superior cava receive ? 

Ans. It receives the vena azygos, the right internal 
mammary vein, and several lesser branches. 

Ques. 4. What is the vena azygos ? 

Ans. It is the trunk of the intercostal veins of the right 
side, and of the inferior intercostals of the left. 

Ques. 5. What is its course 1 

Ans. It crosses from the left to the right, ascends on 
the right side of the bodies of the vertebrae, passes behind 
and above the root of the right lung, and enters the pos- 
terior part of the vena cava. 

Ques. 6. What veins does the right subclavian receive ? 

Ans. It receives three vessels, viz., the external jugular, 
the internal jugular, and the vertebral. 

Ques. 7. What is peculiar to the left subclavian ? 

Ans. It is by much the longest, passes before and across 
the arteries going to the head, and receives, besides the 
same veins as the right, the trunk of the left superior 
intercostals and the left internal mammary. 

Ques. 8. What is the axillary vein ? 
30 



350 

Ans. It is a continuation of the subclavian, and receives 
the blood of the veins, which correspond to the branches 
ci the axillary artery. 



SECTION L. 



OF THE VEINS OF THE HEAD AND NECK. 

Ques. 1 . What veins does the external jugular receive ? 

Ans. It receives the blood of the following veins, viz., 
of the frontal vein, from the forehead ; the angular vein 
from about the inner angle of the eye ; the temporal vein, 
from the temple ; the auricular vein, from the ear ; the 
lingual vein, from the tongue ; the occipital vein, from the 
occiput ; and the supra-humeral vein, from the scapulae. 

Ques. 2. What is its course and termination? 

Ans. It runs superficially down the neck over the 
muscles, and passing behind the clavicle, it terminates 
generally in the subclavian of the same side, but some- 
times in the axillary, and sometimes in the union of 
these two. 

Ques. 3. How is the internal jugular formed ? 

Ans. It receives branches from the fascial and temporal, 
but is chiefly formed by the sinuses of the dura mater. 

Ques. 4. What are the chief sinuses of the dura mater ? 

Ans. They are the cavernous, the circular, the superior 
and inferior petrosal, the occipital, the inferior longi- 
tudinal, the torcular herophili, and the superior longi- 
tudinal. 

Ques. 5. Where is the cavernous sinus situated ? 



351 

Ans. It is situated on each side of the sella turcica, at 
the apex of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 

Ques. 6. Whence does it receive its blood ? 

Ans. It receives its blood from the great ophthalmic 
veins. 

Ques. 7. Where is the circular sinus situated ? 

Ans. It is situated around the pituitary gland. 

Ques. 8. Where is the superior petrosal sinus sit- 
uated ? 

Ans. It is placed in the groove of the ridge of each os 
petrosum. 

Ques. 9. From whence do they receive their blood ? 

Ans. From the cavernous and circular sinuses. 

Ques. 10. Where is the inferior petrosal sinus situated ? 

Ans. Along the suture, formed by the os petrosum and 
os occipitis. 

Ques. 11. From whence does it receive its blood ? 

Ans. From the cavernous and circular sinuses. 

Ques. 12. Where is the occipital sinus situated ? 

Ans. It is placed in the inferior portion of the internal 
crucial spine of the os occipitis. 

Ques. 13. From whence does it receive its blood ? 

Ans. From the cerebellum. 

Ques. 14. Where is the inferior longitudinal sinus 
situated ? 

Ans. On the lower edge of the falx. 

Ques. 15. Where is the torcular herophili situated? 

Ans. In the junction of the falx and tentorium. 

Ques. 16. From whence does it receive its blood ? 

Ans. From the inferior longitudinal sinus, and from 
the vena magna galeni. 

Ques. 17. Where is the superior longitudinal sinus 
situated ? 

Ans. In the furrow of the spine of the os frontis, upper 
edges of the parietal bones, and superior portion of the in- 
ternal crucial ridge of the os occipitis. 



352 

Ques. 18. Where are the lateral sinuses placed? 

Ans. They are placed along the posterior edge of the 
tentorium, in the grooves of the lateral portions of the 
crucial ridge of the os occipitis ; in those on the inside of 
the posterior inferior angle of the parietal bones ; in those 
of the inside of the mastoid portions of the temporal bones ; 
and in those which are situated on each side of the fora- 
men magnum of the occipital bone. 

Ques. 19. From whence do they receive their blood? 

Ans. From the superior longitudinal, torcular herophili 
occipital, and petrosal sinuses. 

Ques. 20. Where do they terminate ? 

Ans. At the jugular foramina, where the internal jug- 
ular veins begin. 

Ques. 21. What is the course of the internal jugular 
veins ? 

Ans. They descend by the sides of the cervical ver- 
tebrae, along the edges of the longus colli, behind the sterno 
and omo hyoideus, behind the external extremity of the 
clavicle. 

Ques. 22. Where do they terminate ? 

Ans. They terminate in the subclavian veins. 

Ques. 23. What is the course of the vertebral vein ? 

Ans. It accompanies the vertebral artery through the 
foramina of the transverse processes of the cervical ver- 
tebrae. 

Ques. 24. From whence does it receive its blood ? 

Ans. It does not enter the cranium with the vertebral 
artery, but receives blood from the lateral sinuses, through 
the foramen condyloideum posterius and foramen mas- 
toideum, and from the vertebral canal. 

Ques. 25. Where does it terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates in the upper and posterior part of 
the subclavian vein. 



353 



SECTION LI. 



OF THE VEINS OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. How are the veins of the upper extremities 
classed ? 

Ans. They are divided into the deep-seated, and the 
superficial. 

Ques. 2. What is the situation of the deep-seated veins ? 

Ans. They accompany the arteries, and receive the 
same names. 

Ques. 3. What are the names of the deep-seated veins ? 

Ans. Those of the upper extremity are, one axillary 
vein, two brachial, two radial, two interosseal, and two 
ulnar veins. 

Ques. 4. Where are the superficial veins situated ? 

Ans. They lie under the skin, and follow an irregular 
couise. 

Ques. 5. What are their names 1 

Ans. Those of the superior extremity are the cephalic 
and the basilic. 

Ques. 6. Where is the cephalic situated ? 

Ans. Along the outer and fore part of the arm and fore- 
arm. 

Ques. 7. What branches does the cephalic vein receive ? 

Ans. At the extremity of the radius it receives branches 
from the back part of the hand, toward the thumb ; be- 
tween the thumb and the metacarpus it receives the 
cephalica pollicis ; and a little below the bend of the arm, 
the mediana cephalica. 

Ques. 8. Where does it terminate ? 
30* 



354 

Ans. It ascends before the external condyle of the hu- 
merus, along the outside of the biceps muscle ; passes 
between the pectoralis major and deltoid, and terminates 
in the axillary vein. 

Ques. 9. What is the situation of the basilic vein ? 

Ans. It is situated along the inner and fore part of the 
arm and forearm. 

Ques. 10. What are the chief branches it receives ? 

Ans. It receives branches from the back part of the 
hand, towards the little finger ; passes over and around 
the internal part of the forearm, and internal condyle of 
the humerus, above which it receives the mediana basilica, 
and runs along the inner edge of the biceps ; it terminates 
in the axillary vein. 

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the median vein ? 

Ans. It is situated between the cephalic and basilic 
veins. 

Ques. 12. How does it divide ? 

Ans. It divides into two great branches, about the 
middle of the forearm ; namely, the mediana cephalica, 
and mediana basilica ; which join the cephalic and ba- 
silic veins. 

Ques. 13. What is the chief branch which joins it? 

Ans. It receives the vena profunda, a branch of com- 
munication with the deep-seated veins. 



355 



SECTION LII. 



OF THE INFERIOR CAVA. 



Ques. 1. What is the origin of the inferior vena cava X 

Ans. It is larger than the superior, and from the inferior 
part of the right auricle of the heart. 

Ques. 2. What is its course ? 

Ans. It pierces the diaphragm ; is placed in a notch at 
the posterior part of the liver ; descends along the bodies 
of the vertebra to the right side of the aorta, and Opposite 
the junction of the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebra it di- 
vides into two branches, called the iliac veins. 

Ques. 3. What veins is received by the vena cava ? 

Ans. It receives in its course the following veins, viz., 
the two phrenic, or diaphragmatic veins ; next, the four 
hepatic veins ; and lower down, the two emulgent and the 
spermatic veins ; and lastly, the lumbar veins. 

Ques. 4. Where do the hepatic veins enter the cava ? 

Ans. They enter the anterior part of the inferior cava, 
just where it passes behind the liver. 

Ques. 5. What is the course of the emulgent veins ? 

Ans. They are the veins of the kidneys ; the left is the 
longest ; passes before the aorta, and receives the left 
spermatic vein. 

Ques. 6. What are the terminations of the spermatic 



veins 



Ans. They correspond with the arteries of that name ; 
the right enters the vena cava, the left opens into the left 
emulgent. 

Ques. 7. What is the course of the primitive iliac 
veins ? 



356 

Ans. They follow the distribution of the iliac arteries. 

Ques. 8. Into what branches do they divide ? 

Ans. They divide at the sacro-iliac junction into the 
internal and external iliac. 

Ques. 9. From whence does the internal iliac receive 
its blood ? 

Ans. From the veins which correspond to, and accom- 
pany the various branches of, the internal iliac artery. 

Ques. 10. What veins does the external iliac vein 



receive 



Ans. It accompanies the artery, and is situated at its 
inner side ; it receives the veins of the lower extremities. 



SECTION LIII. 



OF THE VEINS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. How are the veins of the lower extremities 
arranged ? 

Ans. Like those of the upper, they are divided into a 
deep-seated and a superficial set. 

Ques. 2. What are the deep-seated veins of the lower 
extremity 1 

Ans. They are the femoral, popliteal, two posterior 
tibial, two anterior tibial, and two interosseal veins. 

Ques. 3. What are the names of the superficial veins ? 

Ans. They are the saphena major and saphena minor. 

Ques. 4. What is the situation of the saphena major ? 

Ans. It is situated on the inner part of the foot, knee, 
and thigh. 



357 

Ques. 5. What branches does it receive in its course ? 

Ans. It receives branches from the upper part of the 
back of the foot, towards the great toe ; runs over the 
malleolus internus, along the inner part of the tibia, just 
behind the internal condyle of the femur, and follows the 
direction of the sartorius up the thigh, receiving branches 
in its course. 

Ques. 6. Where does it terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates in the crural vein, a little below 
Poupart's ligament. 

Ques. 7. What is the course of the saphena minor? 

Ans. It begins on the outside of the foot, ascends on 
the same side of the tendo-Achillis and gastrocnemius, 
and enters the ham. 

Ques. 8. Where does it terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates in the upper part of the popliteal vein. 



SECTION LIV. 



OF THE VENA PORT.E. 



Ques. 1. What is the vena portae ? 

Ans. It is a vein of great size, peculiar to the liver, and 
which has two sets of branches. 

Ques. 2. What is the vena portae addominalis ? 

Ans. It is one set of the vena portae, which is distri- 
buted over the stomach, intestines, spleen, and pancreas, 
accompanying the arteries of these parts, and receives 
their blood. 



358 

Ques. 3. What is the vena portae hepatica. 

Ans. It is the other set of the branches of the vena 
portae, which is ramified through the substance of the 
liver, secretes the bile, and terminates in the hepatic veins. 

Ques. 4. What is the situation of the trunk of the 
vena portae ? 

Ans. It is situated partly in the transverse fissure of the 
liver, where it is called the sinus of the vena portae ; and 
partly it is contained in Glisson's capsule. 

Ques. 5. How is the trunk of the vena portae formed ? 

Ans. It is formed by three considerable veins ; namely, 
the vena mesenterica major, the vena splenica, and the 
vena mesenterica minor, or haemorrhoidalis interna. 

Ques. 6. Where does the vena mesenterica major de- 
rive its blood ? 

Ans. It receives blood from the veins corresponding to 
the superior mesenteric artery. 

Ques. 7. What veins does the splenica receive ? 

Ans. It receives blood from the spleen, and from a 
branch of the coronary vein of the stomach, the pancre- 
atic veins, and the gastro-epiploica sinistra. 

Ques. 8. Where does the mesenterica minor or in- 
ferior derive its blood ? 

Ans. It obtains its blood from the inferior mesenteric 
and some branches of the cceliac arteries. 

Ques. 9. What lesser veins join the trunk of the vena 
portae ? 

Ans. It receives the cystic, the pyloric, and the duo- 
denal veins ; as also the gastrica dextra and the coronary 
vein of the stomach.* 

*"* Having now finished the examinations on the venous system, 
I have to remark that I have followed the usual plan of commencing 
with the heart, in the same way as the arteries are described. As 
the veins return the blood to the heart, the more proper plan would 
be to commence at the extremities, and follow up their course to the 
right auricle of the heart ; in order however not to confuse the minds 



359 



SECTION LV. 



OF THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM IN GENERAL. 

Ques. 1. What are the absorbents ? 

Ans. They are a numerous set of minute transparent 
vessels, distinct from the blood-vessels, which take up 
the nutritive part of our food, and the various fluids and 
solids of the living body, to make way for the deposit of 
fresh matter. 

Ques. 2. What division has been made of the absor- 
bents ? 

Ans. They are divided into lacteals and lymphatics. 

Ques. 3. What difference is there betwixt the lacteals 
and lymphatics ? 

Ans. This distinction has arisen only from the colour 
of their contents. The lacteals contain a milk-like fluid, 
the chyle ; they are the absorbents of the small intestines. 
All the other absorbents of the body are called lymphatics, 
containing lymph. 

Ques. 4. How do the absorbents begin ? 

Ans. They begin by minute open mouths ; first, from 
all the internal cavities ; secondly, from the cellular mem- 
brane and every interstice ; thirdly, from the ducts and 
glands; fourthly, from the surface of the skin, stomach, 
intestines, &c. 

Ques. 5. What is their general course ? 

Ans. They follow the general course of the veins ; in 
the limbs there is a deep-seated and a superficial set. 

of young students, I have followed the old arrangement, leaving it to 
themselves to reverse that arrangement, which can very readily be 
accomplished. 



360 

Ques. 6. How do they terminate ? 
Ans. They terminate by two trunks behind the middle 
of each clavicle, in the subclavian vein, near the angle 
formed by it and the internal jugular. 
Ques. 7. What is the thoracic duct ? 
Ans. The left is the principal trunk, and is called the 
thoracic duct ; it receives all the absorbents of the body, 
excepting those of the right arm and right side of the 
head, which forms the right trunk. 

Ques. 8. What is the structure of the absorbents ? 
Ans. They are very thin and transparent, but remark- 
ably dense, and stronger than the veins. 
Ques. 9. How many coats have they ? 
Ans. They have a muscular and cuticular coat. 
Ques. 10. How is the cuticular coat disposed ? 
Ans. It is the most internal, and forms numerous pairs 
of valves in every absorbent vessel. 

Ques. 11. What are the lymphatic glands ? 
Ans. They are an important part of the absorbent 
system. They are small glandular bodies, through 
which the absorbents convey their contents before they 
terminate in the common trunks. 

Ques. 12. Where are they situated ? 
Ans. They are found in clusters in various parts of 
the body ; as just below the occiput, under the ears and 
jaw, along the side of the neck, behind the clavicle in 
the axilla, and two or three near the elbow ; in the tho- 
rax, the bronchial glands, and at the root of the lungs ; 
in the abdomen, called mesenteric glands, belonging to 
the lacteals ; in the loins and pelvis ; in the inguinal 
region ; and two or three in the ham. 

Ques. 13. What are the vasa inferentia and vasa 
efferentia ? 

Ans. The absorbents which enter a gland are called 
vasa inferentia ; they are more numerous than those 



• 361 

which pass out of the gland, and are called vasa effer- 
entia. 

Ques. 14. What is the structure of these glands ? 

Ans. They appear to be of cellular structure, and not 
composed of convoluted absorbents, as has been alleged. 



SECTION LVI. 



OF THE LYMPHATICS OF THE HEAD AND NECK. 

Ques. 1. How are the lymphatics of the head and 
neck classed ? 

Ans. They are divided into the facial, temporal, occi- 
pital, and thyroideal lymphatics. 

Ques. 2. What is the course of the facial lymphatics ? 

Ans. They accompany the trunk and branches of the 
facial blood-vessels, and pass through several small glands 
situated in their course. 

Ques. 3. What is the course of the temporal lympha- 
tics ? 

Ans. They accompany the temporal blood-vessels, and 
pass through glands at the root of the zygomatic process. 

Ques. 4. What is the course of the occipital lym- 
phatics ? 

Ans. They accompany the occipital blood-vessels, pass 
through glands behind the mastoid process, and descend 
with the others along the external and internal jugular 
veins, to join the lymphatics of the upper extremities. 
31 



362 



Ques. 5. What is the course of the thyroideal lym- 
phatics 1 

Ans. They descend on each side of the trachea through 
the cervical glands to the commencement of the thoracic 
duct. 

Ques. 6. Are there any lymphatics in the brain ? 

Ans. Lymphatics have never been demonstrated in the 
brain, but their existence is not doubted. 



SECTION LVII. 



OF THE LYMPHATICS OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. What is the course of the superficial lym- 
phatics of the upper extremity ? 

Ans. They follow the course of the cephalic and basi- 
lic veins ; those accompanying the basilic enter two or 
three glands just above the internal condyle of the os 
humeri. 

Ques. 2. What is the course of the deep-seated lym- 
phatics ? 

Ans. They accompany the arteries ; there being three 
or four, or more lymphatic trunks to each artery. 

Ques. 3. How do the lymphatics of the upper extre- 
mity terminate ? 

Ans. They all terminate in the axillary lymphatic 
trunk. 



363 

Ques. 4. Where does the left axillary lymphatic 
trunk terminate ? 

Ans. It opens into the thoracic duct. 

Ques. 5. Where does the right axillary lymphatic 
trunk terminate ? 

Ans. It terminates by a second trunk common to it 
and the lymphatics of the right side of the head. 



SECTION LVIII. 



OF THE LYMPHATICS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Ques. 1. What is the course of the superficial lym- 
phatics of the lower extremities ? 

Ans. They follow the course of the saphena major and 
minor veins. Those accompanying the saphena minor 
enter two or three glands placed in the ham. 

Ques. 2. What is the course of the deep-seated lym- 
phatics of the lower extremites ? 

Ans. They accompany the arteries ; several lymphatic 
trunks are found with each artery. 



364 



SECTION LIX. 



OF THE LYMPHATICS OF THE TRUNK. 

Ques. 1. Describe the lymphatics of the pelvis. 
Ans. The lymphatics from the nates, and from the 
organs of generation, pass through the inguinal glands ; 
then under Poupart's ligament to glands situated at the 
brim of the pelvis. Those from the testicles pass along 
the spermatic chord to the lumbar glands ; those from the 
cavity of the pelvis generally proceed along the internal 
iliac arteries ; and a third set ascends upon the psoas 
magnus. At the posterior part of the pelvis they collect 
toward the right side, forming a plexus in the right lum- 
bar region, and at the third lumbar vertebra they unite, 
and being soon joined by the lacteals form the recepta- 
culum chyli. 

Ques. 2. Describe the lymphatics of the abdomen. 
Ans. The abdominal lymphatics from the kidneys 
proceed through glands to a considerable vessel near the 
aorta ; those from the spleen pass along with its artery ; 
those from the pancreas join the lymphatics of the spleen ; 
those from the stomach in part join those of the spleen ; 
others follow the course of the coronary artery, being 
joined by vessels from the liver ; those of the liver either 
ascend its broad ligament, or join the deep-seated vessels, 
or ascend in trunks behind the sternum. The lympha- 
tics of the intestines are called lacteals ; they run through 
glands placed in the mesentery to the receptaculum chyli. 
Ques. 3. Describe the lymphatics of the lungs. 
Ans. They are either superficial or deep-seated ; and 
passing through the bronchial glands they partly join the 



365 

thoracic duct behind the bifurcation of the trachea ; while 
some of those from the right lung ascend in a trunk before 
the superior cava, and terminate in the great lymphatic 
vessel which opens between the right subclavian and ju- 
gular vein ; and others from the left, passing behind the 
arch of the aorta, terminate near the end of the thoracic 
duct. The lymphatics of the heart accompany the coro- 
nary vessels, and those of the left side terminate with the 
last-mentioned lymphatics of the lungs, while those of the 
right terminate between the right subclavian and jugular 
veins. 



SECTION LX. 



OF THE LACTEAL SAC AND DUCT. 

Ques. 1. Where is the lacteal sac situated? 

Ans. It is situated on the body of the first lumbar ver- 
tebra, behind the right crus of the diaphragm and above 
the right renal artery. 

Ques. 2. What is its form ? 

Ans. It is irregularly oval, diminishing towards its 
upper part ; being about an inch in length and a third of 
an inch in breadth. 

Ques. 3. In what does the lacteal sac terminate ? 

Ans. In the thoracic duct, which proceeds from the 
upper part of the lacteal sac. 

31* 



366 

Ques. 4. What is the course of the thoracic duct ? 

Ans. It passes between the crura of the diaphragm and 
beneath the right side of the aorta, and ascends between 
that vessel and the vena azygos to the fifth dorsal verte- 
bra, where that vein in its passage to join the cava covers 
it. The duct then passes behind the oesophagus and the 
curvature of the aorta to the left side, till behind the left 
carotid artery, and on that side of the oesophagus it as- 
cends to the first or second dorsal vertebra, and leaving 
the carotid makes a circular turn and divides ; uniting 
again almost immediately, it descends. 

Ques. 5. Where does the thoracic duct terminate ? 

Ans. Behind the internal jugular vein, in the upper 
part of the subclavian vein. 

Ques. 6. How is its orifice protected ? 

Ans. Its opening into the vein is guarded by two semi- 
lunar valves. 



367 



NEUROLOGY- 



SECTION LXI. 



OF THE NERVES IN GENERAL. 

Ques. 1. What are the nerves ? 

Ans. They are long, firm, white chords, which ramify 
after the manner of the blood-vessels, to be distributed to 
all parts of the body. 

Ques. 2. From what parts do they arise ? 

Ans. From the brain, medulla oblongata, and medulla 
spinalis. 

Ques. 3. What is the general course and distribution 
of the nerves ? 

Ans. They follow the course and distribution of the 
arteries, arising in pairs, and dividing into branches and 
ramifications. 

Ques. 4. What communication have the different 
nerves with each other ? 

Ans. They anastomose ; and in some parts their mu- 
tual communications are numerous, forming a plexus ; at 
others a knot, called ganglion, is found in the course of 
a nerve, from which numerous branches arise. 

Ques. 5. What is the structure of the nerves ? 

Ans. They consist of fasciculi, or bundles of distinct 
longitudinal fibres, closely connected together by cellular 
substance. 

Ques. 6. What are the coverings of the nerves ? 



368 

Ans. Their membranous coverings are said to be con- 
tinuations of those which envelop the brain and spinal 
marrow ; these are distinct at their origin, but afterwards 
a firm cellular texture only appears to surround them. 

Ques. 7. How are the nerves nourished ? 

Ans. They are well supplied with blood-vessels. 

Ques. 8. What is the structure of the ganglions ? 

Ans. They are of reddish grey colour, of firm consist- 
ence, and formed by a close intertexture of filiaments. 

Ques. 9. How are the nerves classed ? 

Ans. They are divided into cerebral, of which there 
are ten pairs ; and spinal, of which there are thirty pairs ; 
besides these, the great sympathetic nerve. 

Ques> 10. How do the cerebral nerves pass out of 
the cranium. 

Ans. They pass out through various holes, in the basis 
of the cranium. 

Ques. 11. How do the spinal nerves pass out of the 
vertebral canal ? 

Ans. They pass out through the lateral foramina of 
the vertebrae, and the anterior foramina of the os sacrum. 

Ques. 12. Enumerate the cerebral nerves. 

Ans. The ten pairs of cerebral nerves are, the first 
pair, or olfactory nerves ; the second pair, or optic 
nerves ; the third pair, or motores occulorum ; the fourth 
pair, or pathetici ; the fifth pair, or trigemini ; the sixth 
pair, or motores externi ; the seventh pair, or auditory 
nerves ; the eighth pair, or par vagum ; the ninth pair, or 
lingual nerves ; and the tenth pair, or suboccipital nerves. 

Ques. 13. How are the spinal nerves divided? 

Ans. They are divided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar, 
and sacral. 



369 



SECTION LXII. 



OF THE CEREBRAL NERVES. 



First Pair. 

Ques. 1. Where do the olfactory nerves arise ? 

Ans. They arise from the corpora striata. 

Ques. 2. What is their course within the cranium ? 

Aus. They pass forward on each side of the crista galli, 
becoming gradually larger and softer, and reach the os 
aethmoides without any communication between them. 

Ques. 3. How do they pass out of the cranium ? 

Ans. They split into a great number of filiaments, and 
pass out of the cranium through the holes of the cribriform 
plate of the aethmoid bone. 

Ques. 4. What is the distribution of the olfactory 
nerves ? 

Ans. They are ramified on the membrane lining the 
septum narium, and the rest of the cavity of the nose. 

Ques. 5. What are the communications of the olfac- 
tory with other nerves ? 

Ans. They communicate by several filiaments with the 
ophthalmic and superior maxillary nerves. 

Second Pair. 

Ques. 6. Whence do the optic nerves arise ? 
Ans. They are the largest of the cervical pairs, and 
arise from the thalami nervorum. 

Ques. 7. What is their course within the cranium? 



370 

Ans. They first pass outward, then approach each 
other ; unite before the sella turcica, and again separate, 

Ques. 8. How do they pass out of the cranium ? 

Ans. They quit the cranium through the foramina 
optica. 

Ques. 9. What is their distribution ? 

Ans. They pass to and enter the globe of the eye, in 
order to form the retina. 

Third Pair. 

Ques. 10. Whence do the third pair arise ? 

Ans. The third pair, or motores oculorum, arise from 
the crura cerebri, just before the anterior edge of the pons 
varolii. 

Ques. 11. What is their coarse within the cranium? 

Ans. They perforate the dura mater behind the sides of 
the posterior clynoid process, and run along the upper 
part of the cavernous sinus. 

Ques. 12. How do they pass out of the cranium ? 

Ans. They pass out of the cranium through the foramen 
lacerum orbitale superius. 

Ques. 13. Enumerate the branches of the motores 
oculorum. 

Ans. Each sends, first, a branch to the rectus superior, 
which gives a ramus to the levator palpebrae superioris ; 
secondly, a branch to the rectus internus ; thirdly, a 
branch to the rectus inferior ; fourthly, the longest branch, 
to the obliquus inferior ; fifthly, a branch to the lenticular 
ganglion. 

Ques. 14. What is the course and distribution of the 
ciliary plexus ? 

Ans. From the lenticular ganglion proceed several filia- 
ments, forming the ciliary plexus ; they surround the 
optic nerve, perforate the sclerotic coat, and run between 
it and the choroid as far as the iris, to which they are 
distributed. 



371 



Fourth Pair. 

Ques. 15. Whence do the pathetici arise ? 

Ans. They are the smallest pair, and arise behind the 
nates. 

Ques. 16. What is their course within the cranium ? 

Ans. They pass on each side to the edge of the tento- 
rium, within which they are concealed, and along the 
upper part of the cavernous sinus. 

Ques. 17. Where do they pass out of the cranium ? 

Ans. Through the foramen lacerum orbitale inferius. 

Ques. 18. What is their distribution ? 

Ans. They terminate in the obliquus superior. 

Fifth Pair. 

Ques. 19. Whence do the trigemini arise ? 

Ans. From the sides of the pons varolii, by numerous 
distinct filiaments. 

Ques. 20. What is their course within the cranium ? 

Ans. They pass toward the point of the os petrosum, 
where each perforates the dura mater a little below the 
commencement of the tentorium, and forms a flat semi- 
lunar ganglion. 

Ques. 21. What are the branches of the trigemini? 

Ans. From its semilunar ganglion each gives off three 
great branches ; namely, the first, or ophthalmic ; the 
second, or superior maxillary ; the third, or inferior max- 
illary. 

Ques. 22. How does the ophthalmic branch pass out 
of the cranium ? 

Ans. It passes through the foramen lacerum orbitale 
superius. 

Ques. 23. Where does the superior maxillary pass 
out? 

Ans. Through the foramen rotundum to the upper jaw. 



372 

Ques. 24. Where does the inferior maxillary pass out ? 

Ans. Through the foramen ovale, towards the lower 
jaw. 

Ques. 25. What is the distribution of the rami of the 
ophthalmic branch ? 

Ans. It sends off, first, a frontal branch through the 
superciliary notch to the forehead ; secondly, a nasal 
branch towards the inner canthus, to the lachrymal sac, 
and parts adjacent ; sending branches through the internal 
orbitar foramina, one of which takes a circuitous course 
to the tip of the nose ; thirdly, a lachrymal branch to 
the lachrymal gland ; fourthly, some branches of commu- 
nication to the lenticular ganglion and to the fourth pair. 

Ques. 26. What is the distribution of the rami of the 
maxilliary branch ? 

Ans. It sends off, first, the pterygoid branch through 
the pterygoid foramen, to join the portio dura of the 
seventh pair ; secondly, the spino-palatine to the nose, 
through the foramen of that name ; thirdly, the palatina, 
down the palatine foramen to the palate ; fourthly, the 
infra orbitar through the canal of that name, to the ch«ek 
and upper lip ; fifthly, filiaments to the teeth of the upper 
jaw. 

Ques. 27. What is the distribution of the rami of the 
inferior maxillary branch ? 

Ans. It sends off, first, a temporal branch ; secondly, a 
branch to the cheek; thirdly, a lingual branch, — this is 
the true gustatory nerve ; its branches terminating in the 
papillae of the tongue ; fourthly, the dental branch, which 
is the continuation of this nerve ; it enters the canal of 
the lower jaw, is distributed to the teeth, and comes out 
at the chin, through the mental foramen. 



373 



Sixth Pair. 



Ques. 28. Where do the motores externi arise ? 

Ans. They arise between the pons varolii and the 
corpora olivaria. 

Ques. 29. What is their course within the cranium ? 

Ans. They advance to the dura mater, and perforate it 
on one side of the junction of the sphoenoid and occipital 
bones ; they then run through the cavernous sinus, by the 
side of the carotid arteries, to which they closely adhere, 
and also communicate with a branch of the fifth pair ; 
they likewise send back a filament along the carotid 
artery, accompanying it in its canal, and joining the great 
sympathetic. 

Ques. 30. How do they quit the cranium ? 

Ans. Through the foramen lacerum orbitale superius. 

Ques. 31. What is their distribution ? 

Ans. They are each distributed wholly to the rectus 
externus oculi. 

Seventh Pair. 

Ques. 32. Where do the auditory nerves arise ? 

Ans. They arise from the lateral and posterior part of 
the pons varolii. 

Ques. 33. What is their course within the cranium ? 

Ans. They pass into the meatus auditorious internus of 
the ear on each side. 

Ques. 34. Of what portions do they consist ? 

Ans. Each consists of two portions ; namely, the portio 
mollis, and portio dura. 

Ques. 35. What is the relative situation of the two 
portions 1 

Ans. The portio dura, small and firm, is placed antc- 
32 



374 

riorly ; the portio mollis, larger and softer, is situated 
more posteriorly. 

Ques. 36. What is the distribution of the portio mollis ? 

Ans. It enters the organ of hearing at the basis of the 
cochlea, and inner side of the vestibulum, and is alone 
distributed to the labyrinth. 

Ques. 37. How does the portio dura pass out of the 
cranium ? 

Ans. Through the fallopian aqueduct, and stylo-mas- 
toid foramen. 

Ques. 38. What filaments does the portio dura give 
off within the fallopian aqueduct ? 

Ans. It first gives filaments through the small hole on 
the superior surface of the os petrosum, to join the ptery- 
goid nerve ; then one to the stapedius, and as it goes out, 
another, which passing through the tympanum, is called 
chorda tympani, and joins the lingual branch of the inferior 
maxillary nerve. 

Ques. 39. What great branches does the portio dura 
give off where it emerges from the foramen stylo-mastoi- 
deum ? 

Ans. On quitting the stylo-mastoid foramen, the portio 
dura forms a plexus, whose branches are widely distributed 
over the side of the head and neck, to the temple, to the 
eye-lids, cheeks, nose, lips, chin, head, and neck, forming 
what has been called the pes anserinus. 

Ques. 40. With what nerves does the portio dura 
communicate ? 

Ans. It freely communicates with the three branches of 
the fifth pair, and with the cervical nerves. 

Ques. 41. What is Sir Charles Bell's opinion in re- 
gard to the portio dura ? 

Aus. That it is the superior respiratory nerve of the 
face. 



375 



Eighth Pair. 

Ques. 42. Where does the par vagum or pneumo- 
gastric nerve arise ? 

Ans. From the corpora olivaria, laterally. 

Ques. 43. Of what portions does the eighth pair 
consist ? 

Ans. At its commencement it consists of two separate 
portions ; the first called the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, 
and the second the true par vagum. 

Ques. 44. How do the eighth pair of nerves pass out 
of the cranium ? 

Ans. They run towards the jugular foramen before the 
extremity of the lateral sinus, from which the nerve on 
each side is separated by two small bony prominences, 
and a membranous septum ; here the glosso-pharyngeal 
nerve is siluated before the par vagum, and separated from 
it by a thin membranous septum. 

Ques. 45. Where is the eighth pair joined by the 
nervous accessorius ? 

Ans. In its passage through the jugular foramen. 

Ques. 46. What is the course of the nervous acces- 
sorius ? 

Ans. It ascends from the spinal marrow, enters the 
cranium at the foramen magnum occipitale, and joining 
the par vagum, passes out again to be distributed to the 
integuments and muscles at* the back of the neck. 

Ques. 47. How is the glosso-pharyngeal nerve dis- 
tributed ? 

Ans. It is distributed to the tonsils, pharynx, and 
tongue, and sends branches of communication to the fifth, 
seventh, and ninth pairs. 

Ques. 48. What is the situation of the par vagum in 
its passage from the head to the chest ? 

Ans. It passes before and adheres to the ninth pair, 



376 

and to the superior cervical ganglion of the great sym- 
pathetic ; it descends along the neck by the side of 
the carotid artery, behind the internal jugular vein, and in 
company with the great sympathetic nerve. 

Ques. 49. What are the first branches which the par 
vagum gives off? 

Ans. It gives off, first, a branch to the glossopha- 
ryngeal ; second, the pharyngeal to the pharynx ; thirdly, 
the laryngeal to the larynx and thyroid gland ; fourthly, 
branches to the cardiac plexus, and others of commu- 
nication with the great sympathetic, the recurrent, and 
ninth pair. 

Ques. 50. How does the par vagum enter the thorax ? 

Ans. It enters the thorax passing before the subclavian 
artery and vein on the right side ; but on the left, behind 
the subclavian vein, and before the arch of the aorta ; 
it then gives off the recurrent. 

Ques. 51. What is the course and distribution of the 
recurrent nerve ? 

Ans. It forms a kind of loop, which embraces the sub- 
clavian artery on the right side and aorta on the left ; it 
then runs behind these vessels ascending to the posterior 
part of the larynx to.be distributed to its muscles, and 
communicate with the great sympathetic, the cardiac 
plexus, &c. 

Ques. 52. What is the course and distribution of the 
rest of the par vagum 1 

Ans. They give branches which go to the heart, and 
form the cardiac plexus ; branches to the lungs, forming the 
pulmonary plexuses ; they then pass to the oesophagus, 
descend behind it to the stomach, forming the oesophageal 
plexus ; and especially distributed to the stomach, form- 
ing the coronary plexus. 



377 



Ninth Pair. 

Ques. 53. Where do the lingual nerves arise ? 

Ans. They arise between the corpora pyramidalia and 
olivaria, by several filaments, which, uniting, form two 
small chords. 

Ques. 54. How do they make their exit from the cra- 



nium 



Ans. They pierce the dura mater, and pass out of the 
cranium by the anterior condyloid foramina. 

Ques. 55. To what nerves do the ninth pair adhere on 
their exit from the cranium ? 

Ans. After quitting the cranium each is united to the 
trunk of the eighth pair, to the superior cervical ganglion, 
and by a branch of communication to the tenth pair. 

Ques. 56. What is their course and distribution ? 

Ans. They pass before the large ganglion of the great 
sympathetic, run between the internal jugular vein and 
carotid artery, and then to the tongue, to the muscles of 
which they are distributed. 

Ques 57. What branches do they give off in their 
passage toward the tongue ? 

Ans. Shortly after their exit from the cranium they 
give off a large branch, which descends along with the 
carotid artery, called descendens noni. 

Ques. 58. How is the descendens noni distributed ? 

Ans. It joins branches from the first, second, and third 
cervical, and is distributed with them to the muscles at 
the fore part of the neck. 

Tenth Pair. 

Ques. 59. Where do the sub-occipital nerves arise ? 
A.ns. They arise at the extremity of the medulla ob- 
32* 



378 

longata and beginning of the spinal marrow, by small 
filaments. 

Ques. 60. How do they make their exit from the 
cranium ? 

Ans. They pass directly outward, and having pierced 
the dura mater where the vertebral arteries enter, and 
running in its duplicature, emerge under the edge of the 
occipital foramen. 

Ques. 61. What branches are given off by the sub-oc- 
cipital pair ? 

Ans. They send branches of communication to the 
eighth and ninth pairs, to the superior cervical ganglion, 
and to the first cervical pair ; and are then distributed to 
the extensor muscles of the head and occiput. 

Respiratory Nerves. 

Ques. 62. What are the respiratory nerves ? 

Ans. The par vagum, the portio dura of the face, the 
external thoracic, the phrenic, and the spinal accessory 
nerves. 

Ques. 63. What would be the effect of dividing the 
portio dura? 

Ans. It would stop the motions of the nostrils, lips, &c. 

Ques. 6. What effects would follow the division of 
the recurrent branch of the par vagum ? 

Ans. The voice would be destroyed. 

Ques. 65. Suppose the laryngeal branch of the par 
vagum were divided, what would be the consequence ? 

Ans. The consent of motion between the muscles of the 
glottis and the muscles of the chest would be lost. 

Ques. 66. What effect is produced by injury or com- 
pression of the par vagum ? 

Ans. Difficulty of breathing would be the consequence. 

Ques. 67. Suppose the phrenic nerve were divided, 
what would then take place ? 



379 

Ans. It would stop the motion of the diaphragm ? 

Ques. 68. , What consequences would be produced by 
a division of the spinal accessory nerve ? 

Ans. The respiratory motion of the mastoid and tra- 
pezius muscles would be destroyed. 



SECTION LXIII. 



OF THE VERTEBRAL NERVES IN GENERAL. 

Ques. 1. In what manner do the vertebral nerves arise 
from the medulla spinalis ? 

Ans. Each vertebral nerve arises from the medulla spi- 
nalis by two fasciculi of nervous filaments ; one anterior, 
the other posterior. 

Ques. 2. How do they pass from the canal of the 
spine ? 

Ans. The two fasciculi uniting, perforate the dura 
mater, and pass through the lateral foramina of the ver- 
tebral column. 

Ques. 3. How are the two fasciculi of the vertebral 
nerves connected on their exit from the spine ? 

Ans. They unite and form a ganglion, from which the 
trunk is produced, and from which immediately one 
branch passes backwards and one forwards. 

Ques. 4. How many pairs are there of the vertebral 



nerves 



Ans. There are thirty pairs, viz., seven cervical, 
twelve dorsal, five lumbar, and six sacral. 



380 



SECTION LXIV. 



OF THE CERVICAL NERVES. 



First Pair. 

Ques. l.^How do the first pair of cervical nerves make 
their exit ? 

Ans. They pass out between the first and second cer- 
vical vertebrae. 

Ques. 2. How is the anterior branch of the first pair 
of cervical nerves distributed ? 

Ans. It communicates with the superior cervical gang- 
lion, and with the sub-occipital nerve it sends branches to 
join the descendens noni and the second cervical pair, and 
others to the muscles at the anterior part of the neck. 

Ques. 3. How is the posterior branch distributed ? 

Ans. This is the most considerable branch ; it is dis- 
tributed to the muscles at the upper and back part of the 
neck. 

Second Pair. 

Ques. 4. Where do the second pair of cervical nerves 
make their exit ? 

Ans. They pass out between the second and third cer- 
vical vertebrae. 

Ques. 5. How is the anterior branch of the second 
pair of cervical nerves distributed ? 

Ans. Its anterior branch communicates with the second 
and fourth cervical pairs, the great sympathetic, the de- 



381 

scendens noni ; and often concurs in the formation of the 
phrenic nerve. 

Ques. 6. What is the distribution of the posterior 
branch of the second pair of cervical nerves ? 

Ans. Its posterior branch follows a nearly similar 
course to that of the first pair, with which it anas- 
tamoses, as well as with the portio dura of the seventh. 



Third Pair. 

Ques. 7. Where do the third pair of cervical nerves 
pass out? 

Ans. Between the third and fourth cervical vertebrae. 

Ques. 8. How is the anterior branch distributed ? 

Ans. It communicates with the great sympathetic, fifth 
cervical, and sends a large branch to the phrenic. 

Ques. 9. How is its posterior branch distributed ? 

Ans. It is distributed to the back of the neck, and with 
those already noticed forms a plexus of nerves, which 
supply the back of the neck and head. 

Diaphragmatic Nerve. 

Ques. 10. How is the diaphragmatic or phrenic nerve 
formed I 

Ans. It is formed by branches from several of the cer- 
vical nerves ; of these the most constant and largest is 
from the third cervical. 

Ques. 11. What is its course ? 

Ans. It runs before the scalenus, enters the thorax be- 
hind the anterior extremity of the clavicle ; then receiving 
a filament from the first dorsal, and communicating with 
the sympathetic, it passes obliquely before the subclavian 
artery, and on one side of the par vagum, near the origin 
of the recurrent ; within the thorax it passes before the 



382 

root of the lung, along the side of the pericardium, then 
running backwards enters the diaphragm. 

Ques. 12. In what does the course of the right dia- 
phragmatic nerve differ from that of the left ? 

Ans. The right nerve runs straighter, and lies more 
anteriorly ; the left lies backward towards the aorta, then 
bending over the pericardium, where it covers the apex 
of the heart ; it is longer than the right. 

Ques. 13. How is it distributed? 

Ans. It terminates by numerous ramifications on the 
greater muscle of the diaphragm, and by some filaments 
on the lesser, where it communicates with the sympa- 
thetic, and contiguous abdominal plexuses. 

Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Pairs. 

Ques. 14. How do the last four pairs of cervical 
nerves pass to the neck 1 

Ans. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh cervical pairs 
pass from the spine between their respective vertebrse. 

Ques. 15. How are their posterior branches distri- 
buted ? 

Ans. Their posterior branches are small, and distri- 
buted to the posterior part of the neck, and upper part of 
the back. 

Ques. 16. How are their anterior branches distributed ? 

Ans. Their anterior branches are considerable ; they 
send small branches of communication to the great sym- 
pathetic, a few to the neighbouring muscles, glands, &c. 
&c. ; they then unite, and, together with the first dorsal, 
form the axillary plexus. 



383 



SECTION LXV. 



OF THE BRACHIAL NERVES. 



Ques. 1. What is the axillary plexus ? 
Ans. It is the union of the four inferior cervical and 
first dorsal nerves. 

Ques. 2. How is the axillary plexus constructed ? 
Ans. It consists at its origin of three distinct portions, 
viz., a common trunk formed by the union of the fourth 
and fifth cervical ; below, a common trunk formed by the 
union of the last cervical and first dorsal ; and between 
these, the sixth cervical nerve alone : these soon unite 
and form a bundle of nerves so interwoven as not to be 
unravelled, which pass under the clavicle with the artery 
and vein into the axilla. 

Ques. 3. Whence do the brachial nerves arise ? 
. Ans. From the axillary plexus. 

Ques. 4. What are the different branches of the bra- 
chial nerves ? 

Ans. The scapularis and the thoracic nerves are first 
given off; they then divide into six large nerves, viz., 
the musculocutaneous, the median, the cubital, the in- 
ternal cutaneous, the radial, and the axillary. 

Ques. 5. From what part of the great plexus do the 
brachial nerves arise ? 

Ans. The musculo-cutaneous, median, cubital, and in- 
ternal cutaneous arise anteriorly ; the radial and axillary 
posteriorly. 

Ques. 6. Where does the scapularis nerve arise ? 
Ans. It arises from the upper and back part of the 
plexus. 



384 

Ques. 7. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It runs to the coracoid notch, passes over it, ancj is 
distributed to the supra and infra spinatus, and teres minor. 

Ques. 8. Where do the thoracic nerves arise ? 

Ans. They are three in number, and arise from the 
upper part of the plexus ? 

Ques. 9. How are the)' distributed ? 

Ans. They are distributed to the pectoralis major and 
minor, serratus major anticus, and latissimus dorsi. 

Ques. 10. What is the course and distribution of the 
musculocutaneous nerve ? 

Ans. It passes through the substance of the coraco bra- 
chialis, then between the biceps and brachialis ; to these 
it gives branches, and is distributed to the skin at the 
outer part of the fore arm and back of the hand. 

Ques. 11. What is the course and distribution of the 
median nerve ? 

Ans. It is the largest nerve from the axillary plexus ; 
it accompanies the brachial artery ; in the fore arm it 
passes deep-seated, between the flexor sublimis and pro- 
fundus, under the ligamentum annulare carpi, to the palm 
of the hand, where it divides into branches, viz., two to 
the thumb, two to the fore finger, two to the middle 
finger, and one to the ring finger, after communicating 
with a branch of the cubital. 

Ques. 12. What is the course and distribution of the 
cubital nerve ? 

Ans. It descends along the inner part of the arm, passes 
in a groove between the inner condyle of the humerus 
and the olecranon, perforates the flexor carpi ulnaris, de- 
scends over the ligamentum annulare carpi to the palm of 
the hand, where it sends off one branch to the ring finger, 
two to the little finger, and a branch of communication to 
the median. 

Ques. 13. What is the course and distribution of the 
internal cutaneous nerve ? 



385 

Ans. It is the smallest of the brachial nerves ; it passes 
superficially along the inside of the arm, and is distri- 
buted to the integuments at the inner and fore part of 
the fore arm. 

Ques. 14. What is the course and distribution of the 
radial nerve ? 

Ans. It runs backward round the os humeri, covered 
by the triceps, to which it gives branches to the outside of 
the elbow ; at the bend of the arm it descends between 
the brachialis and supinator longus, to which and to the 
contiguous extensors and supinators it gives rami ; it here 
divides into a superficial, and a profound branch ; the su- 
perficial branch accompanies the radial artery; and at the 
lower part of the radius it sends rami to the convex part 
of the thumb and three adjacent fingers ; the profound 
branch passes between the upper extremity of the radius 
and supinator brevis, in its passage supplying the neigh- 
bouring muscles ; it is then lost in the extensor com- 
munis and muscles of the carpus and thumb, after having 
given a ramus to the musculo-cutaneous nerve. 

Ques. 15. What is the course and distribution of the 
axillary nerve ? 

Ans. It runs in the axilla, between the teres major and 
minor, and behind the head of the os humeri, round the 
neck of which it turns, passing between the articulation 
and the upper end of the long head of the triceps to the 
deltoid, under which it passes and ramifies, supplying the 
adjacent muscles and the joints. 



33 



SECTION LXVI. 



OF THE DORSAL NERVES. 



Ques. 1. Of how many pairs do the dorsal nerves" 
consist 1 

Aus. There are twelve pairs of dorsal nerves. 

Ques. 2. How do they pass from the vertebral canal ? 

Ans. They arise from the spinal marrow in the same 
way as the cervical, and like them pass out through the 
holes formed by the junction of the vertebral notches. 

Ques. 3. How do they resemble each other ? 

Ans. Each presents a gangliform enlargement, from 
which a small posterior branch and a large anterior branch 
arise. 

Ques. 4. How are the posterior branches distributed ? 

Ans. They are distributed to the muscles and inte- 
guments of the back. 

Ques. 5. How are the anterior branches distributed ? 

Ans. They each send two branches to the throracic 
ganglia of the great sympathetic ; they then follow the 
course and distribution of the intercostal arteries, and are 
called the intercostal nerves. 

Ques. 6. To the formation of what nerves do the first 
dorsal pair contribute ? 

Ans. After communicating with the great sympathetic 
and sending off its posterior and a small intercostal branch, 
it concurs in the formation of the axillary plexus. 

Ques. 7. How are the humeral nerves formed ? 

Ans. The second and third intercostals send branches 
to form the humeral nerves, which pass into the axilla, 
and are distributed to the integuments on the inside of the 
upper arm. 



387 



Ques. 8. How are the lower five dorsal nerves distri- 
buted ? 

Ans. They supply the muscles and integuments of the 
abdomen. 



SECTION LXVII. 



OF THE LUMBAR NERVES. 



Ques. 1. Of how many pairs do the lumbar nerves 
consist ? 

Ans. There are five pairs of lumbar nerves. 

Ques. 2. What is their general course and distri- 
bution ? 

Ans. They form each a ganglion after leaving the spine, 
and send off an anterior and a posterior branch in the same 
manner as the cervical and dorsal nerves ; they send 
branches backward to the vertebral muscles, and com- 
municate with each other and with the sympathetic ; by 
their mutual communication they form the lumbar plexus. 

First Pair. 

Ques. 3. What is the course and distribution of the 
first lumbar pair ? 

Ans. The first lumbar pair is distributed in three 
branches ; one to the abdominal muscles, around the 
crista of the ilium ; the other passes to the pubis and scro- 
tum, and the third to the groin, where it contributes to 
form the crural nerve. 



388 



Second Pair. 

Ques. 4. What is the course and distribution of the 
second pair ? 

Ans. They contribute largely to the lumbar plexus, 
and concur in the formation of the crural and obturator 
nerves. 

Third Pair. 

Ques. 5. What is the distribution of the third pair? 
Ans. They contribute to form the crural and obturator 
nerves, and give branches to the neighbouring muscles. 

Fourth Pair. 

Ques. 6. What is the distribution of the fourth pair ? 

Ans. The fourth pair sends a branch which, joining 
one from the third and one from the second pair, forms 
the obturator ; at the same place it completes the forma- 
tion of the crural nerve : its remaining portion joins the 
fifth pair. 

Fifth Pair. 

Ques. 7. What is the course and distribution of the 
fifth pair ? 

Ans. They descend on the sacro-iliac symphysis, enter 
the pelvis, and receiving a branch from the fourth lumbar, 
join the sacral nerves to produce the sciatic plexus. 

Obturator Nerve. 

Ques. 8. What is the origin of the obturator nerve ? 
Ans. It is formed by branches from the second, third, 
and fourth pairs of lumbar nerves. 



389 

Ques. 9. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. It passes from the pelvis at the upper part of the 
obturator foramen, supplying in its course the obturator 
muscles and pectineus ; it then divides into three chief 
branches to the portions of the triceps, and sends rami 
between them to the gracilis. 



SECTION LXVIIL 



OF THE SACRAL NERVES. 



Ques. 1. Of how many pairs do the sacral nerves 
consist ? 

Ans. There are generally six pairs of sacral nerves. 

Ques. 2. How are they distributed ? 

Ans. Their posterior small branches pass out by the 
posterior sacral foramina; the anterior branches of the 
four superior pass through the anterior sacral foramina ; 
the two inferior through the lateral notches at the extre- 
mity of that bone, and in the os coccygis. 

Ques. 3. What relation do they bear to each other in 
size ? 

Ans. The first pair is very large ; the inferior ones 
gradually diminish ; the last is very small. 

Ques. 4. Which of them form the sciatic plexus ? 

Ans. The three superior, by their junction with the 
fourth and fifth lumbar pairs. 

Ques. 5. What are the branches proceeding from the 
sciatic plexus ? 

33* 



390 

Ans. From the plexus, but more especially from the 
second pair, a branch goes to the vesiculae seminales^ 
prostate gland, uterus, and fallopian tubes ; another, chiefly 
from the fourth pair, has a similar distribution, and goes 
also to the rectum and bladder ; a third branch, the pudic, 
chiefly from the third, runs on the inside of the ischium 
to the corpus cavemosum, the muscles, parts of gene- 
ration, and sphincter ani ; from the extremity of the 
plexus, one branch, the glutaeal, goes to the glutaeus me- 
dius and minimus. 

Ques. 6. How are the two last pairs of sacral nerves 
distributed I 

Ans. The fifth pair, running forward between the ex- 
tremity of the sacrum and ligament of the os coccygis, is 
distributed chiefly to the muscles of the anus, and neigh- 
bouring integuments ; the last pair, running in a direct 
line from the extremity of the sacral canal, is distributed 
to the anus, integuments, &c. 



SECTION LXIX. 



07 THE CRURAL AND SCIATIC NERVES. 



Crural A 



erve. 



Ques-. 1 . How is the crural nerve formed ■ 
Ans. It is formed by the union of the three or four su- 
perior lumbar nerves. 



391 

Ques. 2. How does it pass out of the abdomen ? 

Ans. Under Poupart's ligament to the groin. 

Ques. 3. How is it situated with regard to the femoral 
artery and vein 1 

Ans. It is situated anteriorly to these vessels ? 

Ques. 4. What is its course and distribution ? 

Ans. In the groin it divides into numerous branches ; 
some superficial, which go to the integuments ; others 
profound, which are distributed to the neighbouring mus- 
cles ; one branch, longer and larger than the rest, accom- 
panies the saphena vein to the ankle ; and in its course on 
the thigh, accompanies the femoral artery. 

Sciatic Nerve. 

Ques. 8. How is the great sciatic nerve formed ? 

Ans. It is the largest nerve in the human body, and is 
formed by the plexiform union of the last lumbar and 
first four sacral pairs. 

Ques. 6. How does it pass out of the pelvis, and what 
is its course 1 

Ans. It passes out by the great ischiatic notch, proceeds 
betwixt the great trochanter and tuberosity of the ischium, 
descends on the back part of the thigh to the ham, where 
it receives the name of popliteal nerve. 

Ques. 7. What branches does it give off? 

Ans. It gives branches to the muscles and integuments 
in its passage to the ham. 

Ques. 8. What is the situation, course, and distri- 
bution of the popliteal nerve ? 

Ans. It is situated between the hamstrings, and divides 
into an external or fibular nerve, and an internal or tibial 
nerve, which gradually separate and pass behind the con- 
dyles of the os femoris, and between the heads of the 
gastrocnemii muscles. 

Ques. 9. What is the course of the tibial nerve ? 



392 

Ans. It descends behind the popliteal muscle by the 
side of the plantaris, between the gastrocnemii ; it then 
pierces the head of the soleus, and runs between that mus- 
cle and the great flexors of the toes, near to the inner ankle. 
Ques. 10. What is its distribution? 
Ans. It sends rami to the joint of the knee, the muscles, 
and integuments contiguous to its course ; it sends also a 
greater branch from its upper part, which gives one 
filament to the tibialis posticus, and another perforating 
the interosseous ligament to the upper part of the tibialis 
anticus muscle ; it then sends a long ramus down the 
back of the leg, between the integuments and gastroc- 
nemius, by the side of the saphena externa ; the trunk 
then passes behind the inner ankle through an angular 
ligament to the sole of the foot, where it divides into the 
external and internal plantar nerves, which accompany the 
arteries of the same name. 

Ques. 11. What is the course and distribution of the 
internal plantar nerve ? 

Ans. It runs first along the inner side of the sole of the 
foot, giving filaments to the adductor pollicis, flexor bre- 
vis digitorum, and massa carnea sylvii ; it then divides 
into four branches, which are distributed to the toes after 
the manner of the median nerve in the hand. 

Ques. 12. What is the course and distribution of the 
external plantar nerve ? 

Ans. It passes along the outer edge of the foot and di- 
vides into two branches ; the first branch runs between 
the two last toes, and divides to their sides ; the second 
branch goes to the inferior external side of the little toe. 

Ques. 13. What is the course and distribution of the 
fibular nerve ? 

Ans. It runs forward round the head of the fibula, and 
divides into several rami, which are distributed to the 
outer part of the leg and to the upper part of the foot, 
where it is distributed to the integuments. 



393 



SECTION LXX. 



OF THE GREAT SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 

Ques. 1. What is the general situation of the great 
sympathetic nerve ? 

Ans. It is placed on the anterior and lateral parts of the 
spine, before the roots of the transverse processes ; ex- 
tending from the foramen carotideum of the temporal bone, 
to the lower part of the sacrum. 
Ques. 2. What is its origin ? 

Ans. It is considered generally as beginning from a 

branch of the sixth pair given off in the cavernous sinus, 

and which is soon joined by another from the Vidian nerve. 

Ques. 3. What is the general arrangement of the great 

sympathetic nerve ? 

Ans. It has, at different distances, a great number of 
gangliform tubercles, from which ramifications proceed 
forward, as well as filaments backward, to the ganglia of 
the nerves of the medulla spinalis. 

Ques. 4. How are the ganglia of the sympathetic di- 
vided ? 

Ans. They are divided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and 
sacral. 

Ques. 5. How many cervical ganglia are there ? 
Ans. There are three cervical ganglia, viz., a superior, 
a middle, and an inferior. 

Ques. 6. What is the form and situation of the first 
or superior cervical ganglion ? 

Ans. It is large, soft, and of an oblong figure ; situated 
longitudinally before the roots of the transverse processes 
of the first three vertebrae, and behind the internal carotid. 



394 

Ques. 7. What branches join the superior cervical 
ganglion ? 

Ans. It is closely connected with the eighth and ninth 
pairs, and receives other filaments from them, as well as 
from the four superior cervical nerves ; it sends branches 
to the pharynx ; others, which surround the blood vessels, 
and a branch to the heart, called the superior or super- 
ficial cardiac nerve. 

Ques. 8. What are the communications which the 
descending trunk of the great sympathetic forms in the 
neck ? 

Ans. In its course down the neck to the last cervical 
vertebra it communicates with the fifth and sixth cervical, 
and the recurrent, and sends branches to the cardiac 
plexus. 

Ques. 9. What are the branches given off by the mid- 
dle cervical ganglion ? 

Ans. This ganglion is not constant ; when present, it 
gives and receives the branches noticed as belonging to its 
trunk in the neck. 

Ques. 10. Where is the inferior cervical ganglion si- 
tuated ? 

Ans. It is situated behind the vertebral artery, at the 

root of the transverse process of the last cervical vertebra. 

Ques. 11. What branches does it give and receive? 

Ans. It receives branches from the three inferior cer- 

vieal and first dorsal pair, and from the recurrent ; and 

sends off branches to the cardiac and pulmonary plexuses. 

Ques. 12. Where does the great sympathetic form the 

first dorsal ganglion 1 

Ans. Immediately below the inferior cervical and be- 
hind the subclavian artery. 

Ques. 13. How are the inferior cervical and first dorsal 
ganglia connected ? 

Ans, They are connected to each other by a short por- 
tion of the trunk, which is sometimes double and plex- 



395 

iform, and by a branch which passes before the subclavian 
artery ; thus forming an arch which encloses the artery. 

Ques. 14. How is the cardiac plexus formed? 

Ans. It consists of branches from the trunk of the 
great sympathetic in the neck, (or from the middle cer- 
vical ganglion, when present,) and from the inferior 
cervical ganglion ; and meeting those from the other side, 
they form the cardiac plexus, whose branches supply the 
heart and its pericardium. 

Ques. 15. What is the course of the great sympathetic 
trunk as it descends in the thorax ? 

Ans. From the first dorsal ganglion the great sympa- 
thetic descends over the ligaments, joining the heads of 
the ribs to the vertebrae ; on the last false rib it bends 
towards the bodies of the vertebrae ; between each rib it 
forms a ganglion ; these ganglia regularly communicate 
with the dorsal nerves by two filaments from each. 

Ques. 16. What branches does the great sympathetic 
give off about the middle of the thorax ? 

Ana. It gives off five, and sometimes more ; conside- 
rable branches from several ganglia below the fifth, pass 
forward and downward on the bodies of the vertebrae ; 
they unite and form one short nerve on the last dorsal ver- 
tebra, called the splanchnic. 

Ques. 17. Where does the splanchnic nerve perforate 
the diaphragm ? 

Ans. At the upper and lateral part of the lower muscle 
of the diaphragm. 

Ques. 18. Where does the great sympathetic nerve 
form the semilunar ganglion ? 

Ans. After having entered the abdomen, behind the 
renal capsule. 

Ques. 19. What are the connexions and branches of 
the semilunar ganglion ? 

Ans. It forms a communication between the splanchnic 
nerve of each side, before the aorta ; it then forms the 






396 

solar plexus, from whence proceed numerous branches to 
the different viscera, viz. ; the cceliac or stomachic plexus, 
to the stomach; the hepatic plexus, to the liver, duo- 
denum, and pancreas ; the splenic plexus, to the spleen 
and "pancreas ; the renal or emulgent plexus, to the 
kidneys ; the superior mesenteric plexus, to the small 
intestines ; the inferior mesenteric plexus, to the large 
intestines ; the hypogastric plexus, to the contents of the 
pelvis ; the spermatic plexus, to the testicles. 

Ques. 20. How is the trunk of the great sympathetic 
disposed of after having detached the five branches which 
form the splanchnic nerve ? 

Ans. After forming the splanchnic, it perforates the in- 
ferior muscle of the diaphragm, and then runs on the 
bodies of the ^vertebrae, where it forms the lumbar ganglia. 

Ques. 21. What filaments do the lumbar ganglia re- 
ceive from the lumbar nerves ? 

Ans. Each lumbar ganglion receives two filaments from 
the corresponding lumbar nerve. 

Ques. 22. With what nerves do the sacral ganglia 
communicate ? 

Ans. The great sympathetic passes into the pelvis, 
communicating with the sacral nerves, where it forms the 
sacral ganglia. 

Ques. 23. How does the great sympathetic nerve 
terminate ? 

Ans. It sends branches to the inferior mesenteric plexus, 
and terminates by a communication with the nerve of the 
opposite side, forming an inverted arch, where, together 
with the two lowest sacral nerves, it gives several branches 
to the rectum, anus, and coccygeal muscles. 



397 



SECTION LXXI. 



PECULIARITIES OF THE FEMALE. 

Ques. 1. What is remarkable in the integuments of 
the female? 

Ans. They are softer than in the male, and on the face 
there is no beard. 

Ques. 2. What is the situation of the mammae ? 

Ans. They are two glandular bodies, of a hemispherical 
figure, situated at the anterior and superior part of the 
thorax, on the pectoralis major, and covered by the skin. 

Ques. 3. What is their size ? 

Ans. Their size is various in different subjects, but 
they acquire their chief bulk at the age of puberty. 

Ques. 4. Of what parts do the mammas consist ? 

Ans. Each mammas consists of the papillae or nipple, 
the areola, and the glandular substance of the mammas. 

Ques. 5. What are the papillae, or nipples ? 

Ans. They are of a red colour, projecting from the an- 
terior and middle part of the breast, and are capable of 
erection. 

Ques. 6. What is their structure ? 

Ans. They consist of common integuments, and of a 
firm elastic substance, in which are placed from fifteen to 
twenty ducts, called tubuli lactiferi ; these are the excre- 
tory ducts of the gland, and terminate on the surface of 
the nipple by open mouths. 

Ques. 7. What is the structure of the areola ? 

Ans. The areola is a circular disk at the base of the 
34 



398 

nipple, and of a similar red colour ; it contains numerous 
sebaceous follicles. 

Ques. 8. What is the structure of the body of the 
mammae ? 

Ans. The glandular substance of the mammae is im- 
bedded in a quantity of fat, which forms the great bulk 
of the breast ; it consists of numerous separate, white, 
glandular portions, from which the lactiferous tubes arise 
and approach the nipple, into which they run and ter- 
minate. 

Ques. 9. What is the use of the mammae ? 

Ans. They secrete the milk for the purpose of nou- 
rishing the offspring ; they are therefore hardly developed 
before the age of puberty, and shrink in old age. 

QNote. The bones of the female have some peculi- 
arities, and the leading anatomical properties are the 
organs of generation, which have both been already no- 
ticed under their proper heads.] 



SECTION LXXII. 



PECULIARITIES OF THE FffiTUS. 

Ques. 1. What is peculiar to the bones of the foetus ? 

Ans. They are imperfectly formed ; many of them 
consist of cartilage, while others are much more advanced ; 
of this last kind are the ossicular auditus, the clavicles, 

ribs, and the vertebrae. 



399 

Ques. 2. What is noticed in the adipose substance of 
the foetus ? 

Ans. It is not found about the internal parts as in the 
adult, but is chiefly placed under the skin. 

Ques. 3. What is remarkable in the brain and nerves 
of the foetus ? 

Ans. They bear a larger proportion to the rest of the 
body. 

Ques. 4. What is peculiar in the eye of the foetus ? 

Ans. A remarkable membrane blocks up the pupil, 
being attached to the loose edge of the iris, called mem- 
brana pupillaris ; it disappeais sometime before birth. 

Ques. 5. What is peculiar in the glandular system of 
the foetus ? 

Ans. The thymus gland is very large, and gradually 
disappears after birth ; the liver is much larger, and so 
are the renal glands ; and the kidneys are of a more lobu- 
lated form. 

Ques, 6. How is the testicles situated in the foetus ? 

Ans. In the early months they are situated in the 
cavity of the abdomen, a little below the kidneys ; they 
gradually descend towards the abdominal ring, and pass 
into the scrotum ? 

Ques. 7. What are the parts peculiar to the foetal 
circulation ? 

Ans. They are the foramen ovale of the heart, the ca- 
nalis arteriosus, the canalis venosus, the funis or umbilical 
cord, the umbilical vein, and two umbilical arteries. 

Ques. 8. Describe the foramen ovale. 

Ans. It is an oval opening in the septum auricularum, 
by which the blood passes from the right to the left au- 
ricle ; a valve prevents its return in the contrary direction. 
In the adult this foramen is almost completely obliterated, 
though its situation may always be perceived. 

Ques. 9. Describe the canalis arteriosus. 

Ans. It connects the pulmonary artery to the ascending 



400 

aorta, and transmits the blood, which cannot pass through 
the lungs, from the right ventricle into the aorta. 

Ques. 10. Describe the canalis venosus. 

Ans. It is little more than half an inch in length, and 
passes from the termination of the umbilical vein in the 
liver to the inferior vena cava. 

Ques. 11. What is the course of the umbilical vein ? 

Ans. It passes from the umbilicus to the liver. 

Ques. 12. What is the course of the umbilical arte- 
ries 1 

Ans. They arise from the internal iliac arteries, and 
pass up the sides of the bladder to the umbilicus. 

Ques. 13. How is the umbilical cord formed? 

Ans. It consists of three vessels, viz., the umbilical 
vein, and the two umbilical arteries, which, on quitting 
the abdomen of the fetus at the navel, unite and form this 
long cord of communication with the mother. 

Ques. 14. Describe the course of the foetal circu- 
lation. 

Ans. It is thus performed : the blood is conveyed to 
the foetus through the umbilical vein, from which the 
greater part passes through the liver, and the rest by the 
ductus venosus into the vena cava, and thus to the right 
auricle ; from this auricle it partly passes into the right 
ventricle, but partly also through the foramen ovale into 
the left auricle ; the portion which passes into the right 
ventricle is transmitted through the pulmonary artery to 
the lungs in part, but chiefly through the canalis arteriosus 
into the aorta ; the blood which the pulmonary veins 
bring into the left auricle passes with that received 
through the foramen ovale into the left ventricle, whence 
it is transmitted through the whole system, and returned 
by the veins : to the mother the blood is returned by the 
umbilical arteries. 





INDEX. 








PAGE 




PAGE 


Of anatomy in general 


7 


Scapula 


79 


Of the bones in general 


11 


Clavicle 


82 


Of articulation in general 


15 


Os humeri 


83 


Of osteogeny 


- 


18 


Bones of the fore arm 


86 


Of the head and its 


su- 




Ulna 


87 


tures 


- 


19 


Radius 


89 


Of the bones of the head 


25 


Carpus 


91 


Os frontis 


- 


ib. 


Metacarpus 


93 


Os parietalia 


- 


27 


Bones of the fingers - 


94 


Os temporis 


- 


29 


Os femoris 


96 


Os occipitis 


- 


34 


Os tibia 


100 


Os sphenoides 


- 


37 


Os patella 


101 


Os aethmoides 


- 


41 


Os fibula 


102 


Os nasi 


- 


43 


Bones of the foot 


104 


Os lachrymale 


- 


ib. 


Tarsus 


ib. 


Os malae 


_ 


44 


Metatarsus 


108 


Os maxillare 


supe- 




Bones of the toes -f 


109 


rius 


- 


45 


Female skeleton 


110 


Os palati 


. 


49 


Of cartilages 


112 


Os turbinatum inferius 


51 


Ligaments of the hand 




Vomer 


- 


ib. 


and trunk 


114 


Os maxillare inferius 


52 


Ligaments of the upper 




The teeth 


. 


54 


extremity 


120 


Os hyoides 


- 


58 


Ligaments of the lower 




Vertebrae 


. 


60 


extremity 


125 


Cervical vertebra 


- 


62 


Muscles of the trunk 


131 


Atlas 


. 


63 


Muscles of the male or- 




Dentata 


- 


64 


gans of generation 




Last cervical vertebra - 


65 


and anus 


140 


Dorsal vertebrae 


- 


ib. 


Muscles of the female or- 




Lumbar vertebrae 


- 


66 


gans of generation 




Os sacrum 


- 


61 


and anus 


143 


Os coccygis 


- 


68 


Muscles of the head, face, 




Thorax 


. 


69 


etc. 


145 


Ribs 


. 


ib. 


Larynx 


157 


Sternum 


- 


72 


Pharynx 


159 


Bones of the pelvis 


- 


74 


Of the muscles of the or- 




Os ilium 


. 


74 


gans of voice and de- 




Os ichium 


. 


76 


glution 


160 


Os pubis 


- 


77 


Muscles of the upper ex- 




Acetabulum 


- 


78 


tremity 


169 



402 



Muscles of the lower ex- 




Vera montanum, or ca- 




tremity 


- 


182 


put Gallinaginis 


241 


Bursae mucosae 


. 


195 


Penis 


242 


Fascia 


. 


196 


Corpora cavernosa - 


ib. 


Thoracic viscera 


. 


197 


Urethra 


243 


Pleura 


- 


198 


Corpus spongiosum 


ib. 


Thymus gland 


- 


199 


Integuments of the penis 245 


Pericardium - 


- 


200 


Female organs of genera- 




Heart 


. 


201 


tion 


ib. 


Right auricle 


- 


202 


Uterus 


246 


Right ventricle 


- 


203 


O varia 


248 


Left auricle 


. 


204 


Fallopian tubes 


ib. 


Left ventricle 


. 


ib. 


Vagina 


249 


Arteries, veins, and nerves 




Arteries, veins, and 




of the heart 


. 


205 


nerves of the uterus 


250 


Trachea 


_ 


205 


Pubis 


ib. 


Lungs 


. 


206 


Labia pudendi 


251 


Arteries, veins, and nerves 




Nymphae 


252 


of the lungs 


- 


208 


Clitoris 


ib. 


Bronchial glands 


. 


209 


Urethra 


253 


Circulation of the blood 


ib. 


Orifice of the vagina 


ib. 


Respiration 


- 


211 


Hymen 


254 


Peritoneum 


. 


213 


Organs of the senses 


255 


Stomach 


. 


214 


Organ of vision 


ib. 


Intestines 


. 


216 


Orbits 


256 


Duodenum 


- 


ib. 


Supercilia, or eyebrows 


257 


Jejunum and ilium 


- 


218 


Palpebrse, or eyelids 


ib. 


Ccecum 


. 


219 


Tarsi 


258 


Colon 


- 


ib. 


Ciliary glands 


ib. 


Rectum 


- 


220 


Cilia, or eyelashes 


259 


Mesentery 


- 


221 


Lachrymal apparatus 


ib. 


Liver 


- 


223 


Lachrymal gland 


ib. 


Gall bladder 


. 


227 


Carancula lachrymalis 


260 


Pancreas 


. 


228 


Plica semilunaris 


ib. 


Spleen 


- 


230 


Puncta lachrymalia 


261 


Omentum 


-' 


231 


Canaliculi lachrymales 


ib. 


Kidneys 


- 


ib. 


Lachrymal sac 


ib. 


Renal glands 


. 


234 


Ductus ad nasum 


262 


Pelvic viscera 


. 


235 


The globe of the eye 


263 


Urinary bladder 


- 


ib. 


Coats of the eye 


ib. 


Male organs of generation 237 


Tunica conjunctiva 


ib. 


Scrotum 


. 


ib. 


Tunica sclerotica 


264 


Testes 


. 


238 


Cornea 


264 


Epididimus 


. 


ib. 


Tunica choroides 


ib. 


Vas deferens 


. 


239 


Iris 


265 


Vesiculae seminales 


ib. 


Retina 


266 


Prostate gland 


. 


240 


Humours of the eye 


ib. 


Anti-prostatas, or 


Cow- 




Aqueous humour 


267 


per's glands 


- 


241 


Vitreous humour 


ib. 



403 



PAGE 

Chrystalline lens 268 

Vessels and nerves of 

the eye - - ib. 
Use of the parts of the 
eye - - ib. 

Of the organ of smell 270 

Pituitary membrane 271 
Sinuses - - 272 

Ductus incisivi - ib. 

Blood vessels and 

nerves of the nose ib. 

Of the organ of hearing 273 
External ear - ib. 

Pinna - - ib. 

Lobulus - - 275 

Meatus auditorius ex- 

ternus - - ib. 

Arteries, veins, and 
nerves of the external 
ear - 276 

Internal ear - ib. 

Membrana tympani ib. 

Tympanum - - 277 
Eustachian tube - 278 
Mastoid cells - 279 

Bones of the ear - ib. 
Malleus - - ib. 

Incus - - 280 

Os orbiculare - ib. 

Stapes - - 281 

Inner side of the tym- 
panum - - ib. 
Labyrinth - - 282 
Vestibulum - ib. 
Semicircular canals 283 
Cochlea - - 284 
Meatus auditorius inter- 

nus - - 285 

Use of the parts of the 
ear - - 287 

Of the mouth and organ 

of taste - 288 

External parts of the 

mouth - - 289 

Internal parts of the 

mouth - - ib. 

Gums - - ib. 

Palate - - 290 

Tongue - - 291 



PAGE 

Salival glands - 292 

Parotid glands - 293 

Sub-maxillary glands ib. 
Sub-lingual glands 294 

Amydalas or tonsils ib. 

Thyroid gland - ib. 

Of the skin and of the or- 
gans of touch - 295 
Cutis - - ib. 

Rete mucosum - 296 
Cuticle - - 297 

Adipose substance ib. 

Nails - - 298 

Hairs - - ib. 

Of the brain in general, 

and of its membranes 299 
Dura mater - ib. 

Falx - - 300 

Tentorium - ib. 

Falx cerebri - 301 

Sphenoidal folds - ib. 
Elongations of the dura 

mater - - 302 

Sinuses of the dura ma- 
ter - - 302 
Arteries and nerves of the 

dura mater - ib. 

Pia mater - - 303 
Of the cerebrum - 304 
Corpus callosum 305 

Lateral ventricles 306 

Septum lucidum 307 

Fornix - - ib. 

Choroid plexus - 308 

Corpora striata - ib. 
Thalami nervorum op- 

ticorum - - 309 
Pedes Hippocampi ib. 

Hippocampus minor 310 
Pineal gland - ib. 

Tubercula quadrage- 

mina - - 311 

Aperture in the lateral 

ventricles - ib. 

Third ventricle - 312 

Pituitary gland - ib. 
Of the cerebellum - 313 
Fourth ventricle - 314 
Medulla oblongata 315 



404 



PAGE 

Pons varolii - 315 

Corpora olivaria 316 

Corpora pyramidalia ib. 

Corpora mammillaria ib. 

Medulla spinalis 317 

Of the arteries in general 318 

Pulmonary artery - 319 

Aorta - - ib. 

Arteries of the heart 322 

Arteries of the head 323 

External carotid artery 324 

Internal carotid artery 327 

Arteries of the upper 

extremities - 328 

Subclavian arteries ib. 

Axillary arteries 330 

Thoracic arteries 336 

Abdominal arteries 337 

Pelvic arteries - 340 

Arteries of the lower 

extremities - 344 

Of the veins in general 347 

Superior cava - 349 

Of the veins of the 

head and neck 350 

Veins of the upper ex- 
tremities - 353 

Inferior cava - 355 

Veins of the lower ex- 
tremities - 356 

Vena portae - 357 

Absorbent system 359 

Lymphatics of the head 

and neck - 361 

Lymphatics of the up- 
per extremities 362 

Lymphatics of the low- 
er extremities 363 

Lymphatics of the trunk 364 Peculiarities of the foetus 398 







PAGE 


Of the lacteal sac and duct 365 


Of the nerves in general 


367 


Of the cerebral nerves 


369 


First pair 


-' 


ib. 


Second pair 


- 


ib. 


Third pair 


- 


370 


Fourth pair 


- 


371 


Fifth pair 


- 


ib. 


Sixth pair 


- 


373 


Seventh pair 


- 


ib. 


Eighth pair 


- 


375 


Ninth pair 


- 


377 


Tenth pair 


. 


ib. 


Respiratory nerves 




378 


Of the vertebral nerves 


; 379 


Cervical nerves 


- 


380 


First pair 


- 


ib. 


Second pair 


- 


ib. 


Third pair 


- 


381 


Diaphragmatic nerve- 


ib. 


Fourth, fifth, sixth, 




and seventh pairs 


382 


Brachial nerves 


- 


383 


Dorsal nerves 


- 


384 


Lumbar nerves 


- 


387 


First pair 


- 


ib. 


Second pair 


- 


388 


Third pair 


- 


ib. 


Fourth pair 


- 


ib. 


Fifth pair 


- 


ib. 


Obturator nerve 


- 


ib. 


Sacral nerves 


- 


389 


Crural nerve 


- 


390 


Sciatic nerve 


- 


391 


Great sympathetic 






nerve 


- 


393 


Peculiarities of the 


fe- 




male 


- 


397 



THE END. 



TABLE OF THE BONES. 



'G3 Bones of the 

Head, 

consisting of 



8 Largo and 8 Small Bones of the Cranium, consisting of. 



46 Bonos of the Face, consisting if 



Bono of the the Tongue, 



53 Bones of the 

Trunk, 

consisting of 



04 Bones of the 

Upper 

Extremities, 

consisting of 



26 Bones of the Spine, consisting of . 
25 Bones of the Thorax, consisting of 



2 Bones of tho Pelvis, 



2 Ossa Maxillaria Superio 

2 l Issa Nasalia, 

2 Ossa Lnehrymalia, 

2 ( issa Malarum, 

2 Ossa Palatina, 

2 Ossa Turbianata Inferio 

1 Os Vomer, 

1 (Is Maxillare Iiif.rius, 



::j Hi ntes, or Teeth, i 



' 1 Sternum, 

! 24 Costs, or Ribs, consisting of 



8 Incisores, 
1 OuspiJati, 
8 Iticiispiih- 



7 Cervif-al, 

' 12 Dorsal, 

5 Lumbar. 



. Innominata, consisting of 



f 7 True, } 

2 y on each side 

(S False, ^ 

(1 Os Ilium, } 
. > 1 Os Ischium, i m .V" 
( 1 Os Pubis, S 



4 Bones of tho Shoulders, consisting of 

2 Bones of the Arms, 

4 Bones of the Fore Arms, consisting of 



'16 Bones of the Ca 



54 Bones of the Hands, consisting of ^ 



Bones of the 

Lower 
Extremities, 
consisting 



Bones of the Legs, consisting of 



"14 Bones of Hie Tarsi, «msi*tiiig >■! 



52 Boi >es of the Feet, consisting of 
•esamoid Bones, of which % belong to each Great Toe, and 2 to each Thumb. 



2 Ossa Navicularia, o 
2 dssa Lunaria, 

2 dssa Ci ifi.rinin, 

2 dssa Pisil'ormia. 
2 ( Issa Trapezia, 
2 Ossa Trape/.niilca, 
2 Ossa Maana, 
2 Ossa Unnfnrmia. 



2 Ossa Femorum. 

2 Patella", 

2 Tibire, 

2 Fibula;. 

2 Ossa Calcum, 

2 Astragali, 

2 Ossa Cuboidea, 

2 Ossa Navicularia, 

6 Ossa Cuneiformia, , 



2 Internal, 
2 Middle, 
2 External. 



TABLE II. 



nother, 



c Thyreo-epiglottideus major, 
< Thyreo-epiglottideus minor, 
*■ Arytaeno-epiglottideus. 

Azygos uvulae. 

Constrictor isthmi Faucium. 
3 Stylo-pharyngeus, 
C. Constrictor pharyngis superior. 
1 Constrictor pharyngis medius, 
C Constrictor pharyngis inferior. 

Palato-pharyngeus. 

Adductor minimi digiti pedis, 
Flexor hrevis minimi digiti pedis, 
Abductor minimi digiti pedis, 
Adductor indicis pedis, 
Abductor indicis pedis, 
Adductor medii digiti pedis, 
Abductor medii digiti pedis, 
Adductor tertii digiti pedis, 
^Abductor tertii digiti pedis, 
Transversaiis pedis. 



TABLE OF 



' Muscles of the 
Trunk, &c. 



Muscles arising from the Trunk, and into it and the Linea Alba, 

Muscles arising from the Ribs and Vertebra:, and terminating in a Central Tendon, 
Muscle arising from the Pelvis and Vertebrae, and inserted into the Ribs and Ver- 

Musele arising from tin.- Pelvis and Verleuae, and inserted into the Ribs, 
Muscle arising from tin- Pelvis and Vertebra., and inserted into the Vertebra;, 
Muscle arising from the Pelvis, and inserted into the Ribs, 

Muscles arising from the Vert.-hru-, and inserted into the Ribs, - 



<IMj<|'jU3 intends iiljilmiiinis, 
Ti-urisversiilis abdominis, 
Rectus abdominis, 



\ Lesser muscle of the d 
i LoHgissirous dorsi 



THE MUSCLES. 

Muscles arising from the Larynx, and inserted into the Epiglott 
Muscle arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the Uvula, 
Muscle arising from the Tongue, and inserted into the Fauces, 
Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the Pharyn 



Sacro-lumbalis. 
Mullifidus spinx. 
Quadra tus lurnboru 
("Scalenus anticus, 
Scalenus rnedius, 
J Scalenus posticus, 
| Cervicalis descend. 
Serratus superior i 
inferior p. 



Lv-it: 



Muscles arising fruin the Vertebra', and insejled i 






Muscles of the 
Male Organs, 
ofGeneration 
and Anus, 

Muscles of the 
Female Or- 
gans of Ge-< 



Muscles arising from one Rib, and inserted : 

Muscle from the Sternum to the Ribs, ------ 

Muscle arising from the Vertebra 1 , and inserted into the Pelvis, 

Muscles arising from one part of the Pelvis, and inserted into another, 

Muscle arising from ih«' Oblo|uus Internus Abdominis, and inserted into the Testis, 

Muscles arising from the Tidier Isclui, nml inserted about llie Penis, 



Muscles arising from the Pelvis, and inserted about the Anus, - 

Muscle arising from the Ischium, and inserted into the Clitoris, 
Muscle arising from the < 'liloris, and inserted into the Vagina, - 
Muscle arising from the Tuber Iscliii, and inserted into the Perineum, 
Muscle arising from the Tuber Jschii, and inserted into the Vagina, 
Muscle arising from one part, id tin- Clitoris, and inserted into another, 



transversales colli 
,Jn tor transversales dorsi, 
Intercostales extend, 



Muscles arising lioin the 
Muscle arising from the 



Pelv 



i and inserted about the Anus, - 
lents of the Breast and Shoulder 



i Ribs, or Vertebra;, and inserted i 



Muscles arising from the Skull, and inserted into its Integuments, 
Muscles arising from the Cimuhuh, and inserted into the Eye-lids, 



Muscles arising from the Cran 



irted into the Eye-ball, 



Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the External Ear, 

Muscles arising from one part of the Pinna of the External Ear, and inserted 
another, ---_..... 

Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the Ossicula Auditus, 

Muscle arising from one part of the Nasal Cartilage, and inserted into another, 
Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the Nose and Lips, 
Muscle arising from the Nose, and inserted into the upper Lip, - 

Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the Lips, - 

Mu.le arising from one part of the Lips, and inserted into another, - - 
Muscle arising from one part of the upper Jaw, and inserted into another, - 

- Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the lower Jaw, - - 

' Muscles arising from the Cranium, and inserted into the Larynx, - - 

Muscles arising from the Trunk, and inserted into the Larynx, - - - 

Muscle arising from the Shoulder 



> Platysma myoides. 

rSterno-cleido-mastoidc-us, 

Rectus Capitis ;,mi, u jo,-. 

Rectus capitis uniuu- minor. 
Rocuis capitis lateralis, 

j Spli-nius capitis, 
"S; Complexus, 

Trachelo-miistoiikMu, 
Rectus capitis |i..-tH'i.is n,:,|oi-, 
Ublii|iius cipitis superior, 

^Rectus t;i pitis posticus minor. 

» Occi pi to- frontalis, 

} ( 'orru^itor superoilii. 

S I.e\ntnr pidpeln.r supcrioris, 

y Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
Levator oculi, 
Depressor oculi, 

Abductor oculi, 

Troi'lilearis, or obliipnis superior 
'"dnpius inferior OCUli. 

lollens amera, 



nxs 



La.xator tympani major, 



J',,:..', 

( SI:.,,. J 

(, l.r.alu 



Muscles of the 
Orsans of 



Deglutition. 



irted into the Laryn 



I Masscter, 
< l'lcrv^oideus ex 

i'tety^oideus iul 
^Dicastiicus. 

Sijlu-I.yuideus, 
S.M^o-byoideu,, 
C Genio-byoideus. 
C Sterno-hyoideus, 
I Stcrno-thyroidei 



5 arising from one part of the Latyn 



:ulus glandule ihyroidea: 
.-thyroideuB, 
i-nrylscuoideus posticus, 



Muscle 



a j and inserted into the Tongue, 
and inserted into the Tongue, - 
ana inserted into itself, 
Jramum, and inserted into the Palate, 



{ M»„l„ m . Me fl01n ,„, c,,,mu,u, and ,„_,„,„„ „J p.,.,. 



s' » tl, 



Voire ami De- 

rlution. 1 Muscles arising from the Larynx, and inserted into the Pharyr 

Muscles arising from the Palate, and inserted into the Pharyn 



Muscles arising from the Trunk, and inserted into the Shoulde 
Muscles arising from the Trunk, and inserted into the Ilumeru 
Muscles arising from the Shoulder, and inserted into the Hum< 



Muscles of the 
Upper Ex- 
tremity. 



- iy 


""■'i"»l 




' -<l"Kl"» 




SiS 


Jr" 


"1 ', 1^ M„|l,lh 






Is"' 




^•SubolavluT 8111 "' 











M u>, t, --. . 



; from the Shoulder, and inserted into the 1 ; 
; from the Humerus, and inserted into the 1 



Muscles arising from the Hu 



ed into the Hand, 



"" n '"J <"> 
•ibsouiiuM-ls. 

' si, ,. | "', "[ "''"-'''I's 

J »:;::, :;'h,- -, rT , 



Muscles arising from the Humerus, and inserted into the Fingers, - s }'.[' ' "' j 1 '-" 

Muscles arising from the I'ln.i and Fntcrosseuus Li-nnieut, and inserted into > ,„ 

the Phalanges of the Finders, - • - - - - J Flexor digilorum profundi 



Muscles of the 
Lower Ex- 
tremity. 



Muscles arising from the T< ndons of the Flexor Profundus, and 
the Phalanges of the Fingers, 

Muscles arising from the Fore Arm, and i 

Muscle arising from the Ulnr 
Muscle arising from the Wris 

Muscles arising from the Wrist, and inserted into the Thumb, 
Muscle arising from the Wrist, and inserted into the Fore Finger, 
Muscles arising from the Wrist, and inserted into the Little Finger, 

.Muscles arising fnun the Metacarpus, and inserted into the Thumb, 

Muscles arising from the Metacarpus, and inserted into I lie fingers. 
Muscles arising from the Trunk, and insi rted into the Femur, 



Muscles arising from the Pelvis, and inserted into the Femi 

Muscle arising from the Pelvis, and inserted into the Fascia 
Muscles arising from the Pelvis, and inserted into the Leg, 

Muscles arising from the Femur, and inserted into the Leg, 
Muscles arising from the Femur, and inserted into the Foot, 
Muscles arising from the Leg, and inserted into the Toes, 



■ •Ins pi I till 11115. 



Abductor h.dicis. 

< Ah. i .i,,„H„. .l. K m 

J A.M.i. I. .r ,..,!;<. op. .10 . .l. K .ti, 

Aitilm n.r pulljois. 



ling from the Leg, 



Muscles arising from the Tarsus and Metatarsus, and inserted into the Toes ' 
in general, ' 



; from the Tarsus and Metatarsus, and inserted into the Toes, J j^]^;j"j; ][]"'"[[' |J.'£'' 



Adductor n„ J.. .I.C..N pedis 
Alullit tor iiiciIm dicjli p< ills 
Adductor n-.!.. di»iu pedis. 



_ Muscle arising from one Bone of the Me 



, and inserted into anoi.li' r. 



nv 




TABLE OF THE ARTERIES. 



Right Coronary. 
Left Coronary. 
Arieria Innominata.* 



C Ascending Branch. 
''Superior Thyroldeal, s Descending Branch. 
(.Laryngeal Branch. 
rHyoidal Branch. 
J Dursal of the Tongue. 
*\ Sublingual. 
iRaninal 
("Submental. 
J Coronaria Labiorum. 
| External Nasal. 
Ungular. 



("External Carotid, 



External Maxillary, 

Asrvndiiiii' Pharyn^' ;il. 



^Internal Maxillary, 



I Anterior Cerebri. 
[.Media Cerebri. 



r" Artery to the Dura Mater. 
j Auricular Branch. 
'('Vrvical Branch. 
C Parotid Branches. 
y Tympanic Branch. 
C Sfylo-Mastoid Branch. 
Tr«>Mia.l Branch. 

Orcijutal Branch. 

Transverse Facial Branch. 

Parietal Branch. 

Middle Meningeal Artery. 
Interior Maxillary. 
2 Deep Temporal. 
Alveolar. 
Infra Orbitar. 
Palatn-Maxillary. 
^X.isal Arien, or SphuMio-Palainie. 
( 'iliary Arteries. 
Supraorbital. 
Central Artery of the Retina. 



{Vertebral, 
Internal Mammary, 
Cervical, 
Superior Intercostal, 
Inferior Thyroid, 
Supra Scapular, 



a,-:ii„„, J Humeral Thoracic, 
A " llar M Infra Scapular, 

Posterior Circnmtlex, 
LAnterior Circnmtlex, 



r Profunda Humeri Superior. 
Brachial, < Profunda Inferior, < 

CAnastamodicus Magnus, 



Ridit Bronchial. 
Left Bronchial. 
Inferior Bronchial. 



'Anterii r Interosseal. 
Muar Recurrent. 
Posterior Interosseal. 
Dorsal Artery of the Wrist. 
Superficial Palmar Arch. 
f Inaris Profunda. 
First Digital. 
Second Digital. 
Third Digital. 
Fourth Digital. 

Radial Recurrent. 

Superfi.-ialis Volte. 

A reus Profundus. 

Great Artery of the Thumb. 

Intermetacarpal Branches. 



Coronary of the Stomach. 



C Pancreatic. 
< Gastro-Epiplo 
CVasa Brevia. 
Superior Mesenteric, ^Coli,. 



("Pyloric. 
J Gastro-Epiploi 
1 Duodenal. 
(.Cystic. 



Li it Spermatic. 
Inferior Mesente 
Right Lumbar. 
Lefi Lumbar. 



Left Colic. 

Internal Hemonli -iil.il. 
'Lesser Iliac. 

Umbilical. 
Inferior Vesical. 
Middle Hemorrhoidal 
Uterine. 
Umbilical. 



rSu 
>Mi 
lint 



*"!"■' ' Kt'ernnl l>udie, 

"iildlo External I'udic, 
Irrioi K.tlLTli.il I'udic, 



("External Circnml 
Profunda J Internal Circumrli 
Femoris, ^ First Perforant. 

(.Second Perforant. 
Femoral <^arge Anastc 



1 Sk' 
^fn 



fTibMl Recurrent. 
I Internal Malleolar. 
, External Malleolar. 
< Tarsal. 

Metatarsal. 

External Dorsal of the Great To 
LDccp Anastomotic. 
("Posterior Interosseal. 
! I'ummon Fibula. 

External Plantar. 

"nternal Plantar. 



( ros 

rj£ 01 
<Ext 

)lnt< 
U>ig 



i the Ui-ht Suljchivir 



ctly resembles that of the Left Comm 



i C:*i-otiil ;mtl Left Snlj.:].ivi:in. M-tii(;li bonj given oil' -t-prtratclv -.:. 




- %■ f : 











,00 













:->. 



tP v^' 1 * jA s» A. r ^- '^ *V 



<f , 












^^ 






''b o v 















3 ^ 

, y Q « y * 



X* 









